What Other Variables Contribute And The Composition Of...

What other variables contribute to the composition of racist ideology? There are four fundamental constituents: geographical location, educational attainment, age, and gender. First, the geographical location determines a lot on what type of socialization one experiences and it interconnects with every other aforementioned variables. Take southern states of the United States as an example. The southern states, being the former Confederate states, hold a violent history of racial superiority of Blacks by whites. They have a pre-existing historical framework of disapproving any shape of integration, which lasted over hundred years (Kuklinski, Cobb, Gilens, 1997). This creates a huge regional disparity between nonsoutherners and southerners in terms of cultural value, demographic pattern, and political view. The southern states’ demographic have increasingly become more white-dominated as Blacks migrated upward to the northern states (Campbell, 2010). Reinforcing southerners†™ collective white social identities. The southern culture is characterized around rigidity and radical conservatism (Kuklinski et al., 1997). As until today, Confederate Flag is utilized as their identity marker. According to James H. Kuklinski, the omnipresent racial bias in the South is an idiosyncratically southern phenomenon that is not merely an outcome of the mixture of individuals who reside there. Contemporary southern whites exercise alternative sources of expression of resentShow MoreRelatedRacism and Ethnic Discrimination44667 Words   |  179 Pagesposts 5.7.3 Limited political participation 49 52 53 54 54 57 58 58 59 60 60 61 61 62 64 66 66 66 67 68 6 Demands of Indigenous Peoples and Afro-descendents 70 7 Evaluation of actions adopted by the State and other actors to combat racism in Nicaragua 7.1 Institutionalization of autonomy 7.2 Defending and protecting human rights 7.3 Strengthening regional institutions 7.4 Defending territorial rights 7.5 Implementing bilingual intercultural education 7Read MoreRastafarian79520 Words   |  319 PagesChennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Sà £o Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Copyright  © 2003 by Ennis Barrington Edmonds The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalRead MoreNational Security Outline Essay40741 Words   |  163 PagesTHE ROLE OF LAW (Tipson) Goal Clarification: What is National Security? -National Security - Possible Definitions (Difficult to define) -Safety from foreign coercion or intimidation -UN Charter Article 2(4) - prohibition against â€Å"the threat or use of force against the political independence or territorial integrity of any state† Analytical Tasks: How Americans Think About National Security -Identifying Values: What is at Stake? (What are we trying to protect) -Territory -TraditionalRead MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pageshave been chosen (or speciï ¬ cally written) to provide readers with a core of cases which, together, cover most of the main issues in the text. As such, they should provide a useful backbone to a programme of study but could sensibly be supplemented by other material. We have provided a mixture of longer and shorter cases to increase the ï ¬â€šexibility for teachers. Combined with the illustrations and the short case examples at the end of each chapter (in both versions of the book) this increases the reader’s

Letter to Shakespeare About the Success of His Play...

Letter to Shakespeare About the Success of His Play Macbeth Dear William Shakespeare, I am writing to you from the 21st century as we have developed a new way which allows us to write letters to people in the past. I am very glad to tell you that your play, â€Å"Macbeth†, has become very successful. People admire what you have done in Macbeth. Macbeth is very relevant today for example we have women like Lady Macbeth, as well as men plotting evil crimes. Macbeth has something we call timeless themes, timeless themes are things that are written about in the past but still occur in every day life and are relevant to people now. The people of the 21st century are very fond of the characters you†¦show more content†¦Witchcraft was very popular in your time. Witches were seen as evil creatures e.g. Banquo says â€Å"The earth hath bubbles, as the water has, and these are of them†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This shows that Banquo does not trust the witches and as the general public would think in your time Banquo classes the witches as rare and evil. Most people now do not believe in witchcraft but are still intrested when they read about it in your play. I was intrigued by the witches in the first scene when they started chanting because it grabbed my attention and got the play to a great start. People are now going to the cinema more than they go to the theatre as the theatre is seen as old fashioned now. However you will be pleased to know that you movie is being broadcasted on TV and cinema too. As I said before, your play uses something we call timeless themes. People of our time still enjoy reading all your plays. They love the humour of Midsummer Night’s Dream and cannot get enough of the romance of Romeo and Juliet. They enjoy these plays as they have incidents which are still relevant to us know. Personally I think the reason Macbeth is so popular is because of its successful structure. The structure is simple but very effective. I have realised that you introduced the witches in the first scene to grab the readers’ attention and to keep them interested through the whole play. The witches at the end ofShow MoreRelatedFate In Macbeth Essay992 Words   |  4 Pagesis told about their future they would expect it to be handed to them, but if any sudden obstacle crosses their path, humans decide to take fate into their own hands. In William Shakespeare’s play, The Tragedy of Macbeth, Shakespeare writes about a Scottish soldier who strives for power, and the fall of the king. When Macbeth is told the prophecy that he is going to become king he allows fate to guide and takes no action. But the king does not announce him his successor, then Macbeth and his wife actRead MoreMacbeth Literary Essay : Fair Is Foul And Foul Is Fair1297 Words   |  6 PagesMacbeth Liter ary Essay: â€Å"Fair is foul and foul is fair† In the play Macbeth by William Shakespeare, the characters are often mislead by the impression of reality. The quote â€Å"fair is foul and foul is fair† (Shakespeare 1.1.12), is said by the three witches. This quote is very significant, as it is an elaborate theme throughout the play. Also, the word fair means good, and foul means evil. Fair is foul and foul is fair is a theme that demonstrates how appearances often differs from reality. ThisRead MoreAnalysis of William Shakespeares Macbeth and Its Historical Background1283 Words   |  6 PagesAnalysis of William Shakespeares Macbeth and Its Historical Background I have recently been studying Macbeth, a well-known play by William Shakespeare. In this essay I am going to analyse the play and its historical background. I will also look at the factors that influenced Shakespeare when he was writing the play such as James I, the new king of England and Scotland, how he detested witches, and how Shakespeare manipulated that knowledge. Furthermore, I will be examiningRead MoreAct 1 And 2 Of The Play Macbeth 1323 Words   |  6 PagesIn acts 1 and 2 of the play â€Å"Macbeth† by Shakespeare, the characters Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are presented to the audience through soliloquies and dialogue between the two. Macbeth is presented as brave, ambitious and guilty in Acts 1 and 2 of the play through the way others describe him, what he says and how he internally feels, and Lady Macbeth is presented as being determined and driven. In Acts 1 and 2, Shakespeare presents Macbeth as brave by the way that others describe him. Before the entranceRead MoreBlind Ambition in Macbeth1295 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout the play Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, the reasoning of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth is completely subverted and undermined by their insatiable ambition. Macbeth was at first reasonable enough to keep his ambition in check, however it eventually became to strong for even Macbeth and therefor over powered him. To the contrary, Lady Macbeth was overcome by her ambition from the very beginning. Reasoning was abandoned after the decision to kill Duncan was made. At that point we see no seriousRead More Shakespeares Macbeth - Subversion of Reason by Ambition Essay1222 Words   |  5 PagesMacbeth:   Subversion of Reason by Ambition    Throughout the play Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, the reasoning of the central characters, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, is completely subverted by their insatiable ambition.   At first, Macbeth is reasonable enough to keep his ambition under control.   However, his ambition gradually becomes stronger and eventually overpowers Macbeth. Lady Macbeth is controlled by ambition from the very beginning.   After the decision is made to kill Duncan, all rationalRead MoreThemes Of Dr Jekyll And Mr Hyde And Macbeth1322 Words   |  6 PagesMr Hyde by Robert Stevenson and Macbeth by William Shakespeare both illustrate this idea. In Stevenson’s novel, a scientist named Henry Jekyll experiments with the phenomenon of separating one’s dual nature, which unfortunately kills him because he is not able to take control of his evil side. In Shakespeare’s play, Macbeth, a Scottish general, is consumed by the desire to become king and kills many people to achieve his goal, af ter three witches tell him about his future. Through the use of conflictRead More Destiny, Fate, Free Will and Free Choice in Macbeth - Lady Macbeth as a Tool of Fate1176 Words   |  5 PagesLady Macbeth as a Tool of Fate  Ã‚   The play of Macbeth is all about power and greed. It is about ambition overriding inhibitions and the conscience of a good man. We know that most people consider Macbeth to be a good and a brave man at the start of the book, for example King Duncan himself refers to him as â€Å"O valiant cousin, worthy gentleman!† He is admired for his skills in battle by everyone. It is hard to say what driving force underlies the events of the story, and it is equally hard toRead MoreHow Does Shakespeare Present the Characters Macbeth and Lady Macbeth?1834 Words   |  8 PagesHow does Shakespeare present the characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth in Act 1? Macbeth is a dramatic play which tells the story of the downfall of a ‘Nobleman’ who becomes a ‘tyrant’. In Act one Shakespeare introduces the characters Macbeth and Lady Macbeth using a range of dramatic devices. At the start of the play Macbeth is introduced from two different perspectives. He is firstly introduced by the three witches whom are discussing a meeting with him ‘There to meet with Macbeth’. This sceneRead MoreEssay about Macbeth by William Shakespeare1466 Words   |  6 PagesMacbeth by William Shakespeare As part of my GCSE English Macbeth coursework, I had to analyse how Lady Macbeth persuaded Macbeth to murder Duncan, with a detailed reference to Act 1 Scenes 5, 6 and 7 and Act II scene 1. Also, I needed to consider the events and themes of the play so far, the characters of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth and the nature of their relationship. At the beginning of Act 1 scene 5, Lady Macbeth is alone on stage with a letter, a letter from

In Ancient Greece, The Most Feared Named Was Sparta. It Was A Total Wa Essay Example For Students

In Ancient Greece, The Most Feared Named Was Sparta. It Was A Total Wa Essay r machine willing to take on all comers. They rose above the rest by being well disciplined and educated. The man who brought them this glory was Lycergus. Like any great leader he was very idealistic. His main goal was to change Sparta into a complete city state. It is believed that he was born between the eighth and tenth century. Most historians dont believe he existed at all. He was from the Eurypontid house which was one of two houses of Royality. It is thought by many that he may have been King. Unquestionably he was one of the great thinkers. Among his many accomplishments, Lycergus was responsible for the Spartan Council of Elders, iron coinage, and the education of the entire population. The Spartans attributed all institutions and their Constitution to Lycergus. He established their strict military style and beliefs. He felt it was very important to have a complete person. It would be hard to discover a healthier or more completely developed human being, physically speaking, than a Spartan. Lycergus felt that parents should have the right to punish others children. In this way he thought that children would respect all adults. Overall, he contributed more than anyone else to Spartan culture. That is why he is known as the Father of Spartan Law. Many of the ways that we keep our bodies sound were proposed by Lycergus. Mainly, he felt that people should always do the best thing for their body and their community.

International Business Theory Practice OFDI from India and China

The economic role of China and India has changed in recent decade. These countries have been usually regarded mostly suppliers of labor force by many foreign companies (Chang and Kartic, 166).Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on International Business Theory Practice: OFDI from India and China specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Yet, now China and India begin to act as influential investors that bring capital to the economies of many developed countries, including Australia (United Nations, 9). Thus, it is necessary to understand how these investors will act in Australian economic environment and what their major strategies will be. First, it should be noted that there are different factors that contributed to the growth of outward investment from these countries. In this case, international business theory can provide some valuable explanations. First, one can speak about the liberalization of international trade a nd willingness of governments to establish partnerships that can be mutually beneficial. Yet, this question can be answered by applying the theory of comparative advantage. China and India try to invest in those areas in which foreign countries such as Australia are more productive or have more expertise (Wall and Minocha, 82). This strategy will enable China and India to exert more economic influence. According to the World Investment Report, in 2011 China was the firth largest FDI investor in the world (United Nations, 9). In 2007, Chinese investors brought more that $24 billion to Australian Economy (OECD Investment Committee, 2). India plays a less prominent role, but this country has become a more active OFDI investor (United Nations, 9). This numerical data indicate that the role of China and India in OFDI investment will grow, and Australia should be ready for this change. The FDI from China and India may take different forms. First, FDI from China is likely to take form of f orward integration, which means that Chinese investors will try to take control over those activities which are directly related to the distribution of products and services. The thing is that Chinese companies have access to cheap and qualified labor force, but they cannot control the marketing of goods or services.Advertising Looking for proposal on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Yet, one should not forget that Chinese investors are also interested in resource-seeking. In particular, they may be willing to invest in mining industry of Australia (International Business Publication, 68). The thing is that China’s economy is very much dependent on continuous supply or coal, natural gas, and iron oar. Thus, in this way, they try to gain access to cheap natural resources, and OFDI investment from China to Australia will be oriented toward this sector of economy (Voss, 16). Thus, one of their objective s can be backward integration. The strategies of Indian investors will also vary. On the one hand, the objective can be backward integration. India is not rich in natural resources, and Australian mining industry can be very attractive to the investors from this country. Secondly, they certainly wish to gain access to Australian customers. It should be noted that India exports clothing and textiles to Australia. Hence, they may invest in the major retailing companies of Australia. This discussion shows that Chinese and Indian investors pursue several objectives, such as resource seeking and entrance of new markets. Overall, the strategies of these investors will rely on the principle of comparative and absolute advantage. This means that they will try to invest in those areas in which Australia is more efficient and productive. Overall, their primary interest will be backward integration. Works Cited Chai, Chang and Roy Kartic. Economic reform in China and India: development  expe rience in a comparative perspective. London: Edward Elgar Publishing. International Business Publication. Australia Mineral and Mining Sector Investment  and Business Guide. Melbourne: IBP, 2005. Print.Advertising We will write a custom proposal sample on International Business Theory Practice: OFDI from India and China specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More OECD Investment Committee. China’s Outward Foreign Direct Investment. New York: OECD, 2008. Web.http://www.oecd.org/investment/investmentfordevelopment/40283257.pdf United Nations. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development World  Investment Report. New York: United Nation Publishing, 2011. Web. Voss, Hinrich. The Determinants of Chinese Outward Direct Investment. New York: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2011. Print. Wall, Stuart and Minocha Sonal. International Business. London: Pearson Education, 2009. Print. This proposal on International Business Theory Practice: OFDI from India and China was written and submitted by user Elle Q. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Disbandment of the Canadian Airborne Regiment Somalia 1992 Essay Example

The Disbandment of the Canadian Airborne Regiment: Somalia 1992 Essay The Disbandment Of The Canadian Airborne Regiment In somalta 1992 In 1992, The Canadian airborne regiment was sent into Somalia for a peacekeeping mission. Instead of creating peace, the Canadian regiment have been disbanded because of the Somalia affair. Many innocent Somali citizens were imprisoned for non ethical reasons. One innocent Somali named Shidane Arone was severely tortured and later, killed because of harsh treatment. This shameful act gave people the confidence to speak up and be heard to allow the whole world to see and ear what was really going on in Somalia. The disbandment of the Canadian Airborne Regiment occurred because of the shameful acts that Canadian soldiers did with the assist of their commanders. On March 16 1993, Captain Micheal Sox found a Somalian citizen hiding in a portable toilet in abandoned American base not too far away from a Canadian Base nearby. This citizens name is Shidane Arone, Micael Sox said that he was stealing supplies but he eventually protested and said that he was looking for his brother that ately disappeared for the last couple of weeks. It Just so happened that he was at the wrong place at the wrong time and consequently, taken in as a prisoner and he was treated horribly and tortured. Shadones last words were Canada! Canada! Canada! . It was obvious that these people that tortured Aron were demented. Lack of leadership was a major problem that needed to be solved. In 1993 The regiment was disbanded because the lack of leadership. This issue later caused many problems and gave soldiers power to do what ever they wished to do without onsequences. We will write a custom essay sample on The Disbandment of the Canadian Airborne Regiment: Somalia 1992 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Disbandment of the Canadian Airborne Regiment: Somalia 1992 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Disbandment of the Canadian Airborne Regiment: Somalia 1992 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Sgt. Mark Boland couldnt properly take care of his performance of duty for his role that he played in the death of Shadone Arone. Some of the horrifying acts that the soldiers have committed under the command of Sgt. Mark Boland during the Somalia Affair were torturing prisoners, using teenagers as bunkers for munitions, and also water boarding prisoners. However, as they were they torturing prisoners they took pictures of themselves that later on were downloaded on the internet for the whole world to see. In other words, this probably wasnt the smartest thing to do at that moment. Jim Day is a reporter for the Pembroke Observer which is a local newspaper within the hometown of the Canadian Regiment. Jim Day was the first to report that Canadian soldiers were being held in an ongoing investigation into the death of a Somali citizen. Which later on led to the disbandment of the Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia. In conclusion, the Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia which is referred to as The Somalia Affair was considered a scandal. The soldiers shameful acts that took place in 1993 later had the Canadian Airborne Regiment Disbanded completely. I think that death of Shidane Arone had vast affects on the reputation of Canadians all around the world. Nevertheless, it is sad to see how all these Canadians are being treated as if they have committed a crime Just because one person committed a shameful act. Lack of leadership is a huge problem and without it nobody can guide us to the right paths in the future, without leadership we are nothing.

Polyphemus the Cyclops

Polyphemus the Cyclops The famous one-eyed giant of Greek mythology, Polyphemus first appeared in Homer’s Odyssey and became a recurring character in both classical literature and later European traditions. Who Was Polyphemus? According to Homer, the giant was the son of Poseidon, the sea god, and the nymph Thoosa. He inhabited the island which is now known as Sicily with other, unnamed giants with similar afflictions. While contemporary depictions of the Cyclops assume a humanoid with a single, huge eye, the classical and Renaissance portraits of Polyphemus show a giant with two empty eye sockets where human ocular organs would be, and a single eye centered above them. Polyphemus in the Odyssey Upon landing at Sicily, Odysseus and his men discovered a cave laden with provisions and set about feasting. It was, however, the pair of Polyphemus. When the giant returned from grazing his sheep, he imprisoned the sailors and began to systematically devour them. The Greeks understood this not only as a good story but as a horrible affront to the customs of hospitality. Odysseus offered the giant a quantity of wine from his ship, which gets Polyphemus quite drunk. Before passing out, the giant asks Odysseus’ name; the wily adventurer tells him â€Å"Noman.† Once Polyphemus fell asleep, Odysseus blinded him with sharpened staff burning in the fire. Then he ordered his men to bind themselves to the undersides of Polyphemus’ flock. As the giant blindly felt for his sheep to ensure that the sailors didn’t escape, they passed unnoticed to freedom. Polyphemus, tricked and blinded, was left to scream of the injustice that â€Å"Noman† had done to him. The injury to his son made Poseidon persecute Odysseus at sea, extending his perilous voyage home. Other Classical Sources The one-eyed giant became a favorite of classical poets and sculptors, inspiring a play by Euripides (â€Å"The Cyclops†) and appearing in the Aeneid of Virgil. Polyphemus became a character in the much-loved story of Acis and Galatea, where he pines for a sea-nymph and ultimately kills her suitor. The story was popularized by Ovid in his Metamorphoses. An alternate ending to Ovid’s tale found Polyphemus and Galatea married, from their offspring were born a number of â€Å"savage† races, including the Celts, the Gauls, and the Illyrians. In the Renaissance and Beyond By way of Ovid, the story of Polyphemus - at least his role in the love affair between Acis and Galatea - inspired poetry, opera, statuary and paintings from all over Europe. In music, these include an opera by Haydn and a cantata by Handel. The giant was painted in a landscape by Poussin and a series of works by Gustave Moreau. In the 19th Century, Rodin produced a series of bronze sculptures based on Polyphemus. These artistic creations create a curious, fitting postscript to the career of Homer’s monster, whose name, after all, means â€Å"abounding in songs and legends.†

Refactoring Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Refactoring - Essay Example This is where refactoring will come in handy. Refactoring is a method of altering the code of a software in various ways so it can easily be understood and the cost of modifying the code will be minimal. Refactoring does not change the observable behavior of the program. All changes are done internally just for the purpose of making the code more flexible and reusable. Maintaining the program's observable behavior is crucial to refactoring. Automated testing for each aspect of the software can be done to ensure the consistency of the observable behavior of the program. Refactoring reduces the degradation of an application over time by helping the developers easily maintain it. It is like cleaning up the program's code. It also makes the program easier to understand in the long run. Since one of the principles of refactoring is for it to be done in small steps, it can help the developer find bugs after testing each small step. And since you can easily find bugs, the time spent fixing them would be lesser. Thus, it will allow for more additional features to be added in the program. Refactoring, however, may not be applicable to all program codes. If a code seems to be a total mess, really difficult to understand and has a lot of bugs, then it might be better to rewrite the whole thing than just refactoring it.

Photography Under Consideration and All Aspects of Art and Visual Essay

Photography Under Consideration and All Aspects of Art and Visual Design - Essay Example Photography has been applied in the need to complete information sharing and articulate the plot development in relaying stories. The need to present a visual communicative, the process has been involved in the desire to present the information within the visual process. Photography has been applied to relay a vivid informative, process that complements the visual elements within the created form (Norton 1). Depending on the means applied to take photos and the medium applied in completing the final piece, the visual composition may vary from a medium to the next. Pictures have been applied in variable platforms to predict the outcome of an event and record memories for future reference. All aspects of art and visual design are included in an outstanding piece to give the picture form and definition. However, colour may not be the leading element within the picture composition because forms devoid of the entity have managed to predict outstanding visual composition (Norton 1). To ana lyze a pictorial composition, the forms captured within the frame, direction and angle of the shot can be analyzed to create the information desired to read the mood of the composition. The photography under consideration has been taken in the wild with nature as the subject of the study. The six photos captured have been taken from a similar location and the time for the shoot fluctuates from variable periods. The first shot taken suggests that the photographer had been having a worm's eye view with the towering trees and sky as the subject. The picture taken during the morning period presents an almost perfect balance of the captured features within the window frame.

Analytical Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Analytical Paper - Essay Example Via the characters they come across on their mainland trek, Granado and Guevara witness personally the injustices, face the deprived as well as meet the people and social-classes they could have never came across before. To their astonishment, the road portrays to them a real and enthralling image of Latin-American identity. Consequently, the trip correspondingly establishes the beginning of cognitive dissension and revolution within Guevara Ernesto, who apparently would later consider armed revolution as a technique to confront the continent's widespread economic disparities (Drinot17). In Cuba, Guevara discovered that the peasants had no electricity, schools, accessibility to healthcare and that 40% of the grown-ups were uneducated. Guevara established workshops to impart military tactics, health clinics as well as a newspaper for information disseminating. Guevara was instrumental for devising novel strategies for Cuba’s political, social as well as economic development. Gu evara ensured revolutionary justice against the traitors; he also instituted the Agrarian land-reform as well as the Agrarian Reform Law. This resulted in land redistribution and equality. Guevara was instrumental in instituting universal accessibility to higher education through introducing ‘affirmative action’ to institutions of higher education (Elena 45). Guevara is portrayed in The Motorcycle Diaries as a first-timer tourist:  a freshman finally wriggling out of his upperclass bubble and understanding the world as it is.  Eduardo Elena’s article â€Å"A  Point of Departure† contests this by indicating that this was not Guevara’s first voyage (26). In the movie, Guevara tells Granado that he had not traveled before, though Elena articulates that Guevara’s upper middle-class social rank gave him the chance to travel on holidays with family, and he  travelled as a youth before getting on this specific expedition. Elena  emphasizes that it is this tour in all over South America that is broadly thought to have opened Ernesto Guevara’s eyes to the miseries of the publics as he departed from his accustomed life in Argentina from  1951 to 1952. Guevara’s trips had him witness the divide between the haves and the have-nots (Drinot 10). The Motorcycle Diaries portrays Guevara persistently disregarding his fortunate social status to go through his explorations as an ordinary person. Elena supposes that this transpired as one approach in which Guevara started to display his non-conformist outlook towards a conventional community; his non-conformist explorations had a reflective impact upon how Guevara viewed the society around him.  Ernesto had the aptitude to decide to  rough-in, and this provided him with a distinctive perspective  to see the  predicament of the underprivileged he came across on his explorations (Drinot 11). Guevara’s discoveries made him have a negative attitude towa rds the prevailing upper and middle class standards, cultural expectations, as well as the political tendencies of the 50s. Elena states that  this was Guevara’s choice,  as demonstrated many times  in the movie through his endeavors to interact with the common people they came across in their exploration rather than renting home services or lodging (34). While Granado sought to exchange their skills for food and shelter, Ernesto

Gender Discrimination At Workplace Sociology Essay

Gender Discrimination At Workplace Sociology Essay The reason to conduct this research is to gain knowledge and insight about various factors which results in Gender Discrimination and the problems and hurdles which women face in todays work environment. Two sectors mainly public and private were taken in an account in order to know that in which sector Gender Discrimination greatly take place. Important factors sought include: organizational climate, society and attitude. I would like to know the perception of both men and women on the above mentioned factors and that how these factors influences Gender Discrimination. The mean of research, which I adopted for my research are research paper study, interviews and questionnaires from both men and women. I segregated the selected population according to eight socio-economic classes: GENDER AGE INCOME OCCUPATION SECTOR EDUCATION STATUS ORGANIZATION Male 20-60 10,000-above Public and Private Graduate, masters, M.phil, Phd Single, Divorced, Married Female 20-60 10,000-above Public and Private Graduate, masters, M.phil, Phd Single, Divorced, Married I have found out variety of answers from questionnaires and interviews under different circumstances. ABSTRACT: This paper presents the major factors which greatly influence and result in the Gender Discrimination at work place. To find out that, I have floated fifty questionnaire (30 women and 20 men) in both private and public sector as well as took three interviews from both high management and font line staff ( 2 females and 1 male) in order to know different perception of people in different sectors about Gender Discrimination. Further more, this paper talks about the impact of organizational norms and culture on the female employees performance, comfort at job and perceived growth. This study is focused on governmental organization, private organization, educational institute and public private hospitals. It is concluded that, there is a Gender Discrimination at workplace and women are treated unfairly at their jobs as compared to men. But this discrimination is because of the society in which we live in and because of the different family laws and perception which people have due to dif ferent backgrounds. Also organizational climate as a whole dont effectively influence gender discrimination. Its influence is less then the other two factors which are society and attitude. INTRODUCTION: In an age where we talk about equal rights for men and women, there are still occurrences of people being discriminated against because of their gender. Gender discrimination is not an issue, which one can ignore or tolerate silently. People should realize that gender discrimination at workplace is a serious form of employment discrimination, which should not be discharged. Gender based discrimination is defined as undesirable action or differential treatment against a person that would not have occurred if the person had been of another sex. Gender discrimination is considered as a serious form of injustice and is illegal in certain circumstances in most of the countries around the world. There is a need to develop organizational culture compatible to societal values that supports and motivates more women to participate in the economic and national development activities. There is a challenging task for the organization in future to retain and welcome the rapidly increasing womens participation in the work force both in public and private sector. . BACKGROUND INFORMATION: While some bias is open and overt, much more of it is hidden. We all have hidden biases about particular groups, places, and things. Hidden bias stems from our everyday sense of the way things are, which informs our everyday workplace interactions. Bias affects what we notice about people, how we interpret their behavior and what we remember about them. We tend to notice, interpret and remember behavior that reinforces our biases. These assumptions are pervasive: both men and women make them. The biases that result affect our interactions both with people we know and with people we dont know. Gender bias, specifically, is our assumptions about the characteristics of men and women. For example, men generally are assumed to be aggressive, reliable, and competent and committed to their careers. Every day each one of us makes small judgments about individuals based on everyday assumptions that arise automatically. Research has shown that men benefit more from their accomplishments than women, and even small inequity accumulate over time and cause women to advance at a slower rate then men. The following are the most common patterns of gender bias encountered in the workplace. Maternal wall The strongest and most explicit bias in todays workplace is against mothers. Generally, maternal wall bias is generating when motherhood becomes salient or obvious to managers and colleagues. This typically occurs when a woman announces that she is pregnant, returns from maternity leave, or adopts a part-time or flexible schedule. Maternal wall bias stems from assumptions that mothers are not as competent as others, are not as committed to their jobs, and belongs at home because they cant be both good mothers and good workers. Competency The truth of the common saying women must try twice as hard to achieve half as much is documented by more than a quarter century of social science. Women need to provide more evidence of job-related skills than their male counterparts before they are viewed as competent. Additionally, women are allowed fewer mistakes than men before they are judged incompetent. Role Reversal Behavior that is acceptable in men often is considered unacceptable in women. A woman in a traditionally masculine job may be called hard to work with or too ambitious for the same behavior that helps a man establish himself as assertive and having leadership potential. The unspoken view in such situations is that women should be helpful, warm, understanding, and kind. In some workplaces, women are seen either as likable, dependentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦traditional women who are nice but incompetent or as dominant, nontraditional women who are competent, but are disliked for violating unspoken norms that women should be inclusive and nurturing. The Gender Wars Workplaces create conflict among women when they evince approval of women who adhere to traditional feminine stereotypes (passive, nurturing, and allowing male supervisors to take the spotlight), but disapproval for women who buck such stereotypes. The most common workplace conflict among women is the generational conflict between older women who made it to the highest levels in their companies by closely following a traditional masculine career path and younger women who seek more flexible options, including part-time work. Because most gender bias is subtle rather than overt, policies and procedures that appear to be a facially neutral, objective, and job-related may be applied in ways that lead to fewer hiring and promotion opportunities, lower compensation, poor performance evaluations, more frequent disciplinary actions, and greater termination rates among women. These patterns result when managers base their employment decisions on biases rather than job performance. Decisions based on bias rather than legal job related reasons often will end up penalizing talented workers and rewarding less talented ones. As a result, such decisions may well expose productivity and negatively affect employee morale. In our research I have first begin by identifying gender bias, focusing on public and private sectors and then comparing and contrasting the working environments in both corporate cultures, and then analyzing how rampant gender bias against women is, in both scenarios. RESEARCH INTREST: This research is being conduct to know what the level of gender discrimination at work place. What problems are arising due to gender biasness and what are the consequences of this? How is it affecting the society, peoples life and business world? And the main reasons which lead to gender discrimination at work place. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY: I have conducted this research in order to know that to what extent there is a gender bias at workplace. What are the reasons and what problems are created due to this gender discrimination at work place? Through this research we can come up with the solution to the problem of gender discrimination. Also this can help to make people aware of this prevailing problem of gender biases and the reasons of its occurrence. And the negatives and positive affect of this on the business world and personal lives of men/women. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY: The objective of this study is to Study gender bias in the workplace and focus on the distinction made between a man and woman in a working environment on the basis of professionalism, integrity, and respect, and gauging whether this phenomena has decreased with the passage of time and awareness, or if it has become worse. Study the problems which female employees go through in their job due to society, family pressure and work environment. Study that in which sector, discrimination mainly exists. LITERATURE REVIEW: Sex Discrimination in Hiring: The Influence of Organizational Climate and Need for Approval on Decision Making Katz (1987) conducted a research to find out that whether the organizational climate affects the hiring and decision making or not. He conducted an experiment in Northeastern University. One hundred and sixty males were taken as a sample of age 24- 25 years. He created two artificial organizational environments i.e. discriminatory and non-discriminatory. All the participants were divided into two and were given job descriptions of the organization along with resumes of both males and females. They were also given a scale on which they have to arrange their rà ©sumà ©s. That scale has four variables hiring, salary, fit and longevity. The participants who were taking part in that experiment had to act as a manger and take decisions accordingly. The result which was extracted from the study was that men were given high priority and value in discriminatory organization on hiring, salary, fit and longevity.Whereas, male and female both enjoy equal rights in non-discriminatory environment. The finding of the above mentioned research was all hypothetical and has internal validity. The participants who took part in the experiment were asked to imagine that they are mangers which can result in the real life findings. Sex discriminatio n is an on going process in today society and has to eliminate from a real life experiment which should have external validity and whose findings can be applied in further studies. Sexual Harassment at Workplace: Phillis (2000) in her research paper has reviewed three court cases studies on the respective topic sexual harassment at workplace. She, in her research with the reference of the court case studies wants to find out different forms and effects of sexual harassment women faces at their workplace. The court case study shows that the women are treated very badly at their workplace. They are asked for the physical favors as well as men find different ways and excuses to physically touch them. Females at their workplace are also exposed with bad sexual jokes and pictures which not make them uncomfortable while working but also have bad psychological effects on their minds which ultimately results in the choice between their job and security. Sexual harassment is a very serious problem which still practiced in todays society, government should laws and policies which prohibit this act in an organization. Sexual Harassment at Workplace: Experience of Women at Health Sectors Chaudhuri (2006) conducted a research to investigate the perspective of sexual harassment at health sector. For her research, she has done exploratory research and has under taken four hospitals, two governments and two private. The entire research was qualitative as this issue is quite sensitive. One hundred and forty one women employees take part in this research of age around 20-59. Three group interviews, forty informal interviews and one hundred and thirty five in-depth interviews ere taken from the participants of both public and private hospitals and from that it has been observed that females employees are not only experience verbal and psychological harassment but also male employees touch them physically. Mostly nurses and junior doctors experience sexual harassment. Complaints by them were not given any value and importance and hence no actions were taken against sexual harassment which shows the power disparity among men and women. No proper laws are made in this sector w hich eventually results in the fear and insecurity in the mind of females. Salary Structure Effects and Gender Pay Gap in Academia Barbezat and Hughes (2005) based their study of gender salary gap and discrimination on The National Faculty Survey Data (1999). National Faulty Survey conducted their research by taking in account nine hundred and sixty institutions both public and private of fifty different states and two thousand five hundred and seventy six full and part time employees both males and females associated with these institutions. Authors basic aim was to find out the salary gap between males and females who have similar responsibilities and work positions. From the survey, it has been concluded that men earns 20.7% more than that of women of the same post and responsibilities. The percentage is high at the professional institutions as compared to the art institutions. Men also enjoy more benefits and compensation then women. This issue has to be eliminated and need to be studied more. Gender Discrimination at the Labor Market Lissenburgh (2001) in his paper uses National Survey Data and Human Capital Theory to find out the degree and gender discrimination at the UK labor market (1990s). From the data of the National Survey, the part time female employees faces lot of salary and benefit issues as compared to full time female employees. According to the Human Capital Theory education, training and experience play a great impact on pay gap. There will be an increase of 10% in the women pays only if they pay more attention to the human capital factors. This is also one of the reason, part time female employees get less salary as compared to full time. Government should make such policies which should bound companies to pay all men and women equal pays. Determinate of Gender Based Wage Discrimination in Pakistan: a Confirmatory Factor Analysis Approach Yasin et.al(2010) conducted an empirical study to find out the two main points that wage difference among men and women and development in labor market (1999-2008) Pakistan while keeping socio-culture and individual factors in consideration. All the data and information was collected from secondary source mainly from Labor Force Survey [(2007-2008) conducted by Federal Bureau of Statistics], ministry of industry report. The sample which the Labor Force survey under took for their survey was eighteen thousand nine hundred and twelve household one million individuals from all the four provinces of Pakistan between the ages of 14-65 years. These samples contain both upper and lower level of employees. The results from the survey and from all the reports was that with the passage of time gender discrimination is increasing and the reason behind this is the level of education, experience and organization culture. They also show that gender discrimination mostly apply to those women who are married and have children because then ultimately they have to give more time to their family and children and less to their work. Also our society doesnt allow married women to work 9-5 job. Gender discrimination is an ongoing process and has to be eliminated for the better economic growth of the country. Government should make certa in policies which results in reduction of discrimination. Gender earning inequality and discrimination in Pakistani Labor Market Farooq in his research paper estimate the monthly wage/earning difference between men and women in Pakistani labor market on the findings of Pakistan Standard and Labor Market (PSLM) Survey (2004-2005). The purpose for which this survey was used to find out the Human and non-capital factors for the wage difference in Pakistan. This survey has all the relevant information needed to find out the gender pay gap. The sample which was used in the survey had ninety one thousand three hundred and nineteen household both males and females out of which 51.6% were males of mean age 36 and 48.4% were females of mean age 32. The results which was carried out by author with the help of PSLM survey was that the gender pay gap is increasing and the reason behind that is education and experience of females. Also he found out that males enjoy more benefits and incentives than females. An Analysis of Occupational Choice in Pakistan: a multinomial Approach Nasir (2005) conducted his research on the data of Pakistan Integrated Household Survey [PIHS (2001-2002)] and multinomial log model of occupation choice for males and females to find out the occupational structure and how different factors, human and individual factors, help individuals to choose their occupation. The sample of Pakistan Integrated Household Survey which was conducted by Federal Bureau of statistics was fourteen thousands eight hundred and twenty five house hold which was divided in to two categories that are regular wages and salaries worker and second was self employed and employer. One more sample which was taken by them was thirteen thousand seven hundred and ninety three individuals out of which eleven thousand five hundred and seventy three were males and tow thousand two hundred and twenty were females of ages 10-65. The information which was important for this sample was age, earning, marital status, occupation and education. From this survey and multinomial log model of occupation, the results which were carried out were that education play significant role in choosing the job. Men choose that job which pay good salary and give them more benefits. They mainly choose job on human capital factors rather than on human factors. Author also states that, there are certain factors which play great and important role while choosing of occupation but if there were no factors than there will be an efficiency in the economic growth and women will get chance to come in front to the market with their talents and skills. Occupational segregation results in lowering of the wages and benefits of female employees. Human capital factors (education, experience and training) play a significant role in choosing jobs. Occupational choice greatly impact women as they have to look for their family and children and because of that they have less opportunities then men. To eliminate this concept more job types for women have to open and also there should be equ ality in work place and married women should be given certain benefits so that they can manage their time and work both. As education is one of an important factor therefore women education should be promoted. Organizational Culture: Impact on Female Employees Job Performance Irfan et.al (2009) conducted a research to find out the impact of organizational culture and environment on the performance of female employee. According to author, organization should develop such environment which allows women to work comfortably and attractively and has to be free from biasness. He conducted a research in three services sectors i.e. education sector, banking sector and information technology sector. Stratified random sampling was used. Three hundred females were sampled, hundred from each sector. One hundred and seven questionnaires were distributed among them asking the question on how much organization culture has impact on female employee performance. The results which were extracted from the research were that organizational environment play an important role on the performance of female employment. Organizational environment can make the work place attractive and supportive. Also not only organizational environment but attitude of peers, work environment and support from the family also play a significant role on the female performance. Discrimination in the Health Care Industry: a Research on Public Hospital Ozcan et.al (2011) conducted a research to find out a discriminatory behavior in public hospitals and the reasons and way through which this behavior can be reduced. He conducted a research in public hospitals by distributing questionnaires among three hundred fifty one health care employees and by taking semi-structured interviews from five health care employees from each hospital. The result which was extracted from the research was that there are three types of discrimination mainly ideology, vocational and gender discrimination. Ideological and vocational discrimination mainly results from political and professional views whereas gender discrimination mainly occurs at piratical society where there is male dominance and they enjoy every benefits and advantage of life. Also gender discrimination take place because of societal and cultural factors which prohibits women to work outside and should take care of her home. Discrimination whether it is ideological, vocational or gender sh ould be eliminated in order to increase the economics growth and give platform to females to show their talents. THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK: Gender discrimination at work place Society Organizational climate Attitude Hiring Bias managerial decisions Salary Benefits Promotion Religion Culture Family law Social stigmata Women education Peer pressure Maternal wall Male dominance Mental capabilities Physical strength of women INDEPENTANT AND DEPENTANT VARIABLES: Dependant: gender discrimination at work place Independent: organizational climate, society and attitude. OPERATIONAL DEFINATION: Organizational climate: Organizational climate is the process of measure the culture of an organization. It is a set of properties of the work environment, perceived directly or indirectly by the employees, that is assumed to be a major force in influencing employee behavior. I have taken it as an independent variable as it directly results in gender discrimination at work place. Organizational climate have a great impact when hiring new employees or when setting their salaries or when giving them benefits. Also managers play a great role in an organization as in male dominating organization manager usually does bias decision with regards to women. This result in Dissatisfaction of women in working environment Large number of problems faced by women in an organization Less benefits given to women in an organization Mental stress Less importance and value given to women work and decisions Society: The norms and expectations a community has regarding a women role in society as a home worker. Society is also taken as an independent variable as it directly results in gender discrimination at work place. It is social stigmata that in Pakistan, working women are taken and seen in a bad way also women are not allowed to work outside their homes as it has been taken against their family law. Also religion is one of the factor which stop women to work outside their house. Women are given less importance in our society as well as there is a great discrimination in families to. Girls are given less value and importance in some families which ultimately effect their education and results in less experienced and educated women. Culture also plays a significant role in gender discrimination. This result in Less economic growth Less talent pool Less opportunities for women Attitude: Attitudes are probably one of the most important independent variables that lead to gender discrimination at the workplace. Peer pressure, male dominance all play a significant part in women feeling under pressure at the workplace. Their colleagues may act cold, or not deem them capable enough to handle projects and tasks that are essential to professional growth. Mothers, especially, are highly discriminated against, because of the reason that a mother will not be devoting full attention and focus to her work, instead she will be more focused on her children; hence they should not be hired, because it will cost the company. Also it is believed that women are physically and mentally less strong and capable then men. This result in Sexual harassment Less opportunists for married women Gender Discrimination: biases against women in terms of organizational decision. It encompasses salary, hiring, promotion etc. RESEARCH QUESTIONS: Relationship between organizational climate and gender discrimination, and how it affects the performance, salary, benefits and recruitment of women. How society, prohibits women to work outside and affect their personal and professional lives and result in gender discrimination? How women works and treated in male dominated society and how peer pressure effect women professional life? HYPOTHESIS: H1: culture in an organization is a cause of gender discrimination at workplace. Ho: culture in an organization is not a cause of gender discrimination at workplace. H2: society is a factor effecting gender discrimination at workplace. Ho: society is not a factor effecting gender discrimination at workplace. H3: attitude does results in gender discrimination at workplace. Ho: attitude doesnt results in gender discrimination at workplace. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: Type of research: I have done both primary and secondary research. Primary Research: Primary research is very important as it give different perspective of people on one single issue thats gender discrimination at workplace in my case. I have interviewed from senior executives of organizations and frontline employees. Then I had also distributing questionnaires among the employees of selected organization to know the further information they have regarding the topic. Secondary Research: Secondary research is also very important as it give the supporting knowledge about respective topic and also help one to correct what has been done wrong previously. For secondary research I have taken in account ten published research papers of scholars which help me to find respective independent variables with I have used for both my interview and questionnaires questions. The research paper which I have taken mostly have either research done by scholars by them selves or they have base their research or theories or research done by special departments like world statistic bureau and world census bureau. Tool of Research: The tools of research which I have taken in account for my research paper are as follows: Research paper study: Different research papers written and published by different scholars are taken in account. From reading these papers I have also taken out important independent variables which help me to formulate my primary research. Questionnaires: Questionnaire is also one of the research tools for my researches which give me the approximate ratio of the different thinking of people both men and women. The type of scales which I have used in my questionnaires are as follows: Simple attitude rating: it is the most simple form of scale in which either respondent agrees or disagree with the question. Like YES or NO Category scale: it is a kind of scale which provide respondent different category of responses with alternative rating. Like NEVER, RARELY, SOMETIMES, OFTEN. Likert scale: this is a form of rating scale which allows respondents to indicate that how strongly they agree or disagree with any statement. Like STRONGLY DISAGREE à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦STRONGLY AGREE. Interviews: interviews will help me to get spontaneous and quick feed back from both executive level and frontline level employees. The types of interviews which I have taken are personal interviews, they are the one in which face to face questions has been asked. The questions are both in formal and in formal way. Target Population: Questionnaires: I have circulated fifty questionnaires among the employees of an organization. Out of sixty, thirty has been filed by women and twenty by men. The target population which I have selected is both from public and private sectors. Interviews: I have interviewed from the senior and frontline managers of an organization. The totally interview which I will be conducting will be three in number. Two form senior manager and one from frontline staff. Sampling: The type of sampling which I have used for my research is QUOTA SAMPLING; this is a non probability sampling procedure that ensures that the population which has been selected has some common features which researcher wants. I have used this type of sampling because I will be only taking interviews of those people and making my questionnaire filled from those people who are working in a particular organization. Interviews: I had taken three interviews, two from senior management and one from frontline staff. Ages ranges from 28-60. Two senior management are from SMEDA and BYCO PETROLEUM out of which one is male and one is female. Where as, I have interviewed women (front line staff) from PASSCO. For respondents responses look at appendix 2. Questionnaires: I had circulated fifty questionnaires, thirty from female employees ages ranges from 25-45 and twenty from male employees ages ranges from 25-60. All the participants whom I selected were from private (byco petroleum, LACAS and surgemaid) and public (PASSCO, SMEDA, CMH and Garrison school). For questionnaire look at appendix 1. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA: I floated fifty questionnaires among fifty respondents, out of which thirty were female employees and twenty were male employees. I floated my questionnaires both in public and private sector. I did multiple regression using stat graphics on the data which I collected from the questionnaires. Multiple regression analysis includes any techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. More specifically, regression analysis helps one understand how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied, while the other independent variables are held fixed. The results which I computed from regression are as follows: The above are the values which are commuted from multiple regression. Dependant variable in the above table is gender discrimination where as the independent variables are attitude, organizational climat

The Appeal of Television Chat Shows Essay -- TV Media Papers

The Appeal of Television Chat Shows Chat shows are a very popular and successful modern day television program. Why? It is probably because as humans we are naturally nosey and curious about the lifestyles of others, especially those of the rich and famous. It is this common characteristic that makes the neighbors peep through the curtains to see what the Jones' are up to next, the reason that village gossip spreads so quickly and the cause of the growing number of reality television programs. Whether we admit or not, many have a fascination with those in the public eye. We want to know about their secret to success, the skeletons in their closet and if they really are human like the rest of us. When this curiosity is applied to heroes, idols and people that others look up to and want to be like, that is when the appeal of chat shows is brought to life. Chat shows are the ultimate way of finding out the truth about celebrities not from badly taken paparazzi photos or twisted quotes in magazines but from the celebrity themself. Chat shows are not just popular with the public but also with the celebrities. It is a great way of advertising themselves if they have a new film or book out for instance. Another example is if they have had a lot of bad press recently, maybe over a crime they have committed. The celebrity may appear on a popular chat show to win back the sympathy and popularity of the public. Chat shows are sometimes confused with talk shows but are very different in the style they are run. Chat shows are interviews with celebrities and are considered more promotional television whereas talk shows are basically public ... ...rs Merton who is an old lady is actually a young woman dressed up as on old age pensioner. She cracks jokes to the audience about false hips and dentures and northern accent and dialect add to the humour. I have established that chat shows are very popular and that the appeal from them is becoming more than just the guests. This is because chat shows have turned from just the basic interview to a programme with characters (The Ali G Show) audience participation, for example anecdotes or games (Graham Norton) and performances and humour (The Kumars at Number 42). Entertainment is getting harder to fulfill as each show has to bring something new to appeal and compete with other chat shows to gain and maintain its audience however the base for any chat show will always remain the celebrities that appear on the show.

Fda and Tobacco Regulation

The FDA and Tobacco Regulation 10/15/2012 MAN 4701/ 82844 Do you agree with the Food and Drug Administration that nicotine can be classified as a drug and that cigarettes can be classified as devices under the definitions in the Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act? Under the definition of a drug in the Food, Drug , and Cosmetics Act of 1938 it is defined as a product that affects the structure or any function of the body. As a group we decided that is in fact considered a drug because as a company, the tobacco manufactures in fact knew what their product was doing to potential consumers.Due to the abundance of deaths occurring each year, we figured a ban would be best for the situation. Unfortunately, as Kessler believed, a ban would be unworkable. 1) Did the FDA make any legal or political errors that defeated its efforts to regulate tobacco? We did believe that the FDA did make some political errors in defeating its efforts to regulate tobacco. To start with, the FDA recognized the tobac co industry to be very powerful. Also, they decided to regulate cigarettes as medical devise which did not lead to a ban. Another action that went wrong is that they didn’t impose restrictions on adult smoking, instead focused on under aged smoking.2) Do you agree with the decision of the U. S. Supreme Court? Why or why not? As a group, we didn’t agree with the decision of the Supreme Court. The court ended up with a 5-4 majority split. Both sides had valuable points in the argument but the Supreme Court came out on top. Defendant Justice O’Connor stated that although tobacco was one of the nation’s most troubling public health problems, the FDA had no jurisdiction over it.As stated earlier, since they considered nicotine a drug, they would have to ban them completely which was unworkable. 3) Do you believe that the story reveals flaws in American Government and the regulatory process, or do you believe that the story reveals a system that, despite faults , is ultimately responsive and just? We viewed the story as determining right from wrong. We believed since the ban didn’t fall through, then there must be some sort of flaws in the government. Since banning cigarettes would save tons of lives, we figured that would be the correct approach. ) Should congress enact FDA regulation of tobacco products even if it adds to the competitive advantage of Philip Morris? We agreed that a regulation should be placed on tobacco products even if it adds to the competitive advantage of Philip Morris. We though the public’s health should be of the highest priority instead of worrying about a competitive advantage. With that said, if regulations were passed cigarette smoking would be passed then followed by less deaths related to tobacco usage.

Free Essays on Lockes Influence On Nietzche

In On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche uses history, etymology, and reason to attempt to explicate the origins of human social interaction. Nietzsche’s style is speculative (as all philosophy is), yet extremely convincing and challenging. Instead of merely projecting current behavior onto the past, as English psychologists in Nietzsche’s time did, he attempts to form his genealogy from the beginning of human morals, and project it onto the present. For example, in the first essay of the Genealogy, â€Å"’Good and Evil’, ‘Good and Bad’†, Nietzsche claims that the world’s current moral state is due to a massive â€Å"slave revolt† against hedonistic nobles. His grand vision of a war of morality seems almost Biblical- not entirely historically accurate, but metaphorically and broadly applicable to society. In the second essay of the Genealogy, â€Å"’Guilt’, ‘Bad Conscience’, and the Like’†, Nietzsche begins by talking about basic human characteristics, and rationally builds up to an explanation of humans’ internal conflicts. Part of this essay, as stated by its title, contains Nietzsche’s hypothesis on the origin of Guilt. Nietzsche, at the beginning of the second essay, refers to humans primitively, calling them â€Å"animals† with â€Å"the right to make promises†. (Genealogy, Second Essay, Section 1) The perspective of his account is mostly third person, taking the reader through nature’s development of the human animal. He talks about how memory and forgetfulness are both active, and related to human will. Memory is a person’s desire to make sense of his or her past, or construct a â€Å"long chain of the will†. (Genealogy, Second Essay, Section 1) According to Nietzsche, evolution caused humans to yield memory from their will. Since people have the need to understand their past in a chronological way, they also want to predict and give structure to the future- the clichà © phras... Free Essays on Locke's Influence On Nietzche Free Essays on Locke's Influence On Nietzche In On the Genealogy of Morals, Friedrich Nietzsche uses history, etymology, and reason to attempt to explicate the origins of human social interaction. Nietzsche’s style is speculative (as all philosophy is), yet extremely convincing and challenging. Instead of merely projecting current behavior onto the past, as English psychologists in Nietzsche’s time did, he attempts to form his genealogy from the beginning of human morals, and project it onto the present. For example, in the first essay of the Genealogy, â€Å"’Good and Evil’, ‘Good and Bad’†, Nietzsche claims that the world’s current moral state is due to a massive â€Å"slave revolt† against hedonistic nobles. His grand vision of a war of morality seems almost Biblical- not entirely historically accurate, but metaphorically and broadly applicable to society. In the second essay of the Genealogy, â€Å"’Guilt’, ‘Bad Conscience’, and the Like’†, Nietzsche begins by talking about basic human characteristics, and rationally builds up to an explanation of humans’ internal conflicts. Part of this essay, as stated by its title, contains Nietzsche’s hypothesis on the origin of Guilt. Nietzsche, at the beginning of the second essay, refers to humans primitively, calling them â€Å"animals† with â€Å"the right to make promises†. (Genealogy, Second Essay, Section 1) The perspective of his account is mostly third person, taking the reader through nature’s development of the human animal. He talks about how memory and forgetfulness are both active, and related to human will. Memory is a person’s desire to make sense of his or her past, or construct a â€Å"long chain of the will†. (Genealogy, Second Essay, Section 1) According to Nietzsche, evolution caused humans to yield memory from their will. Since people have the need to understand their past in a chronological way, they also want to predict and give structure to the future- the clichà © phras...

Suppressed Evidence Fallacy

Suppressed Evidence Fallacy In the discussion about inductive arguments, it is explained how a cogent inductive argument had to have both good reasoning and true premises. But the fact that all included premises have to be true also means that all true premises have to be included. When true and relevant information is left out for any reason, the fallacy called Suppressed Evidence is committed. The fallacy of Suppressed Evidence is categorized as a Fallacy of Presumption because it creates the presumption that the true premises are complete. Examples and Discussion Here is an example of Suppressed Evidence used by Patrick Hurley: 1. Most dogs are friendly and pose no threat to people who pet them. Therefore, it would be safe to pet the little dog that is approaching us now. It should be possible to imagine all sorts of things which might be true and which would be highly relevant to the issue at hand. The dog might be growling and protecting its home. Or it might even be foaming at the mouth, suggesting rabies. Here is another, similar example: 2. That type of car is poorly made; a friend of mine has one, and it continually gives him trouble. This might seem like a reasonable comment, but there are many things which might be left unsaid. For example, the friend might not take good care of the car and might not get the oil changed regularly. Or maybe the friend fancies himself as a mechanic and just does a lousy job. Perhaps the most common use of the fallacy of Suppressed Evidence is in advertising. Most marketing campaigns will present great information about a product, but will also ignore problematic or bad information. 3. When you get digital cable, you can watch different channels on every set in the house without purchasing expensive extra equipment. But with satellite TV, you have to buy an extra piece of equipment to each set. Therefore, digital cable is a better value. All of the above premises are true and do lead to the conclusion. But what they fail to note is the fact that if you are a single person - the sort of person who often seems to be the subject of the ads, curiously enough - there is little or no need to have independent cable on more than one TV. Because this information is ignored, the above argument commits the fallacy of Suppressed Evidence. We also sometimes see this fallacy committed in scientific research whenever someone focuses on evidence which supports their hypothesis while ignoring data which would tend to disconfirm it. This is why it is important that experiments can be replicated by others and that the information about how the experiments were conducted be released. Other researchers might catch the data which was originally ignored. Creationism is a good place to find fallacies of Suppressed Evidence. There are quite a few cases where creationist arguments simply ignore evidence relevant to their claims, but which would cause them problems. For example, when explaining how a Great Flood would explain the fossil record: 4. As the water level began to rise, the more advanced creatures would move to higher ground for safety, but more primitive creatures would not do so. This is why you find less complex creatures further down in the fossil record and human fossils near the top. All sorts of important things are ignored here, for example, the fact that marine life would have benefitted from such a flood and the would not be found layered in such a way for those reasons. Politics is also an excellent source of this fallacy. It isnt unusual to have a politician make claims without bothering to include critical information. For example: 5. If you look at our money, you will find the words In God We Trust. This proves that ours is a Christian Nation and that our government accepts that we are a Christian people. What is ignored here is, among other things, that these words only became mandatory on our money during the 1950s when there was a widespread fear of communism. The fact that these words are so recent and are largely a reaction to the Soviet Union makes the conclusion about this being politically a Christian Nation much less plausible. Avoiding the Fallacy You can avoid committing the fallacy of Suppressed Evidence by being careful with regard to any research you do on a topic. If you are going to defend a proposition, you should make an attempt to find contradictory evidence and not simply evidence which supports your presupposition or beliefs. By doing this, you are more likely to avoid missing crucial data, and it is less likely that anyone can reasonably accuse you of committing this fallacy.

The processes that occur in the Network when you Essay

The processes that occur in the Network when you - Essay Example There are several processes that are running concurrently, both at server and client ends, to make this communication a success. A thorough knowledge of these devices and their roles, protocols and associated technologies, at various levels of the network, is required for understanding the process that take place in a network for communication to occur successfully. Analyzing the process at various layers of a network demands a methodical comprehension of a ‘broad brush’ picture of the communication channel and protocol stack that might be at work behind the scene. More often than not, access to private networks, like the X-Stream server from our home or some other remote location is materialized through Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology. VPN is used to access a private network, like a university Learning Management System (LMS), over a public network like the Internet. When a student access X-Stream Server over a public network, this implementation of VPN is know n to be an ‘Access VPN’. VPN ensures a secure access to the private resource through implementation of security at various layers of the communication channel. ... rs used to define communication spectrum over the TCP/IP suit of protocols includes; Application Layer, Host to Host Layer , Internet Layer and Network Access Layer. The process that occurs on the network is mainly the study of data as it travels through the TCP/IP stack because WAN is only used as a vehicle to carry data and no significant processing is done as far the data is concerned. There are several important protocols that forms a part of the TCP/IP protocol suite which includes FTP, TFTP, VoIP, HTTP, ICMP, UDP, ARP and RARP etc. Moreover the RIP and OSPF are also the part of TCP/IP protocol suite which ensures the routing of the information over a network. From a user’s perspective the process that occur on a network starts with the use of application software that can talk to a underlying network e.g. a web browser that uses HTTP to make things happen for a user. Comer refers this as the application level internet service and states, â€Å"From a user’s point view, the internet appears to consist of a set of application programs that use the underlying network to carry out useful communication tasks†(3). Moreover the session of communication instance is maintained at the Application Layer, however these session are not logged by HTTP. â€Å"Each HTTP request is self-contained; the server does not keep a history of previous request or previous sessions† (Comer, 490). At next level the processes to ensure and enforce the data integrity, correctness and reliable packet delivery are guarded by the Host to Host layer. This layer also segments and sequences the continuous stream of data that leaves a user end and reassembles it at server end while acknowledging the receipt of each segment. â€Å"As each segment of data is received at the destination, an

Abortion vs Adoption Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Abortion vs Adoption - Essay Example Though there are many debates on making abortion safe for mothers, the fact is that no abortion may be considered safe. Considering the varying degrees of effects that affect the mother after this exercise, there should be no debate on the safety of an abortion. These complications may be physical, emotional, spiritual or psychological and do usually affect a mother for the rest of their lives. For instance, statistics today show that about 10% of all mothers in induced abortions have immediate serious complications, with 2% of these complications being life threatening. In addition, there are many mothers who suffer from many minor complications that may involve infections, damage to the uterus, too much bleeding, hemorrhages, and serious injuries in their cervix among others. Some of the major complications that are known today include premature births. This is because in induced abortions, the cervix is opened before its time is due, which damages the cervical muscles. Consequentl y, depending on the degree of the damage, as the woman bear another pregnancy, the baby increases pressure at the cervix where the weakened muscles open prematurely. Moreover, the mother may suffer from sterility on the long term with 3-5% of all aborting women becoming sterile after abortions mainly due to the morbidity of the process. This is more serious when a woman may have venereal disease at the time of an abortion. The major psychological effects related to abortion are mental problems. In a study of aborting mothers in their eight week after abortion, 44% of mothers complained of having nervous disorders, 36% complained of having some serious sleep disturbances, 31% bitterly regretted of having aborted their babies and 11% were placed under psychotropic drugs by a doctor (Ashton 1117). In fact, the research noted that women who had procured an abortion had much higher chances of admission in psychiatric facilities than those who did not. Moreover, these effects are compounded by increasing guilt, and increases in the level of anxiety in the mother, though there is a short period marked by post abortion numbness of what may be termed as emotional paralysis. Teenagers are particularly affected by these post abortion complications. These effects are mostly related to the internal conflict between one’s moral standards, ethics and the decision to abort, which explains the temporary period in which the mother feels relieved. Therefore, with these abortion danger s and side effects, there is need to consider a better and healthier approach for the mother and the baby in cases where the mother may not be interested in the; consequently, pro-adoption becomes the best alternative. In the last three decades, adoption practices have considerably changed in the US; today, there are many couples across the US willing to adopt a child than bearing their own child (Berry 125). This is because today there are more career based families where both partners are in highly involving careers and lack time to undergo the normal child bearing process, mainly driven by changes in the role of women in the labor force. Moreover, there are increasing cases of infertility among many couples, which increases the number of people seeking to adopt children (Berry 125). However, there is a trend where abortion practices, birth controls and a changed impression of families towards single motherhood has drastically reduced the number of available children for adoption (Berry 125). Considering these factors, there are no reasons for women to procure an abortion when there is an increasing demand of healthy children to adopt across the US. One of the adoption practices that has gained much success today is open adoption.

Manufacturing in China and its environmental impacts Essay

Manufacturing in China and its environmental impacts - Essay Example The automotive industry played, and continues to play, a key role in this concept. The Volkswagen Group has set up two joint ventures for the manufacture of automobiles in China. While the Shanghai Volkswagen success story began in 1984, the contracts for FAW-Volkswagen were signed in the northern Chinese city of Changchun in 1990. In January 2003, another joint venture, this time producing gearboxes, began operations in Shanghai. This was followed in 2004 by a joint company for manufacturing powertrain components. Two further joint ventures for modern engines started production in 2006 and 2007. Data suggest that there is a constant steady growth during the time of study, except between the years 2001 and 2002. Primarily, the reason for this is that China has become a member of the World Trade Organization in 2001. As the sales performance shows, the Volkswagen Group has gained full advantage of this opportunity. The data clearly suggest continuous growth of product sale from 1999 to 2006; however, the market share has been reduced from a peak of 50% to 17.1% in 2006. The tendency of decrease in market share is expected, mainly due to the current and anticipated burgeoning growth of automobile ownership in China. Toyota has grown to become a large multinational corporation from where it started. It has expanded to different worldwide markets and countries by becoming the largest seller of cars in the beginning of 2007 and the most profitable automaker in 2006 with increasing sales in the world. Toyota has long been recognized as an industry leader in manufacturing and production. In retrospect, Toyota Motor Company Limited (currently Toyota Motor Corporation) was established in 1937 and started to export automotive to China since 1964. It founded Toyota Automotive Services Centre in Beijing and the Technical Support Centre in Tianjin in 1980 and 1990, respectively.

Medical Marijuana Essay Example for Free

Medical Marijuana Essay Introduction: â€Å"Cannabis isn’t for everybody, but patients are entitled to pick and choose their own medicine.† Michelle Rainey (VanMusic, 2010, Pg. 1) Thesis: The prescription drug companies dispense medicines that are harmful and that is what I am here to change your minds about today. This will explore what Medical Marijuana can be used for, the lies you’ve been told about Marijuana and how corrupt the Pharmaceutical drug companies are. Body: I. Why is Marijuana medicine? 1) What THC does in our bodies (Wikipedia Cannabinoid Receptor, n. d., Pg.1) * Cannabinoid receptors are activated by 3 major groups of: Ligands, Endocannabinoids (found in the mammalian body) and Plant Cannabinoids (found in THC in plants). 2) What can Marijuana treat? (Wikipedia Medical Cannabis, n.d., Pg. 3) * Crones Disease, Glaucoma, Anorexia Nervosa, Huntington’s Disease, Arthritis, Epilepsy, Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome, Distoria, A.I.D.S., H.I.V., Menstrual Cramps, Digestive Diseases, Cancer, Alzheimer’s Disease, Appetite Stimulant, Anxiety, P.M.S., Pruritus, Leukemia, Methicillin- Resistant Disease, Tourette Syndrome, Multiple Syntosis, Multiple Sclerosis, Bi- Polar Disorder, Tics, Insomnia, Psoriasis, Fibromyalgia, Migraines, Hepatitis C, Painkiller, Parkinson’s Disease, Depression, Asthma, Nausea. 3) How do you consume it? * Vaporizers * Bongs * Joints * Pipes * Bubblers * Food II. The lies around Marijuana use. 4) The Gateway Theory (Harvey B. -The Union, 2007, Documentary) * Harry Anslinger’s â€Å"Stepping Stone Theory† * â€Å"If you step on this stone Marijuana, then you are bound and determined to go onto the next stone, which would be one of the so called hard drugs.† * For every 104 Marijuana users, 1 uses Cocaine and less than 1 use Heroin. 5) Marijuana Kills Brain Cells (Harvey B. -The Union, 2007, Documentary) * The 1947 Dr. Heath/ Tulane Study * Monkeys were administered 30 Columbian strength Marijuana cigarettes everyday for 1 year. Brain damage was determined by counting the brain cells of the monkeys that were given the Marijuana and ones that has not. 6) Marijuana will kill you (Harvey B. -The Union, 2007, Documentary) * There has never been one recorded death that was directly attributed to Marijuana use. III. How Corrupt is the Pharmaceutical Companies? 7) Marinol (DEAsucks.com, n.d. Pg. 1)(Morrow A., 2009, Pg.1) * THC that has been synthetically reproduced as a prescription drug. * Nauseated or vomiting people cannot swallow pills. * Less dosage control/ Longer to release into system. * Costs $600-$1000 US per month. 8) Pharmaceutical Domination (Goldacre B., 2007, Pg.1)(Mercola, 2010, Pg.1) * In the UK the pharmaceutical trade is the third most profitable activity after finance. * In 2002, 10 US companies on the Fortune 500 list had combined international sales of $217 Billion. * GlaxoSmithKline sued the South African government for trying to supply A.I.D.S. victims with affordable medicines. * Johnson Johnson recently pleaded guilty to illegally promoting it’s epilepsy drug Topamax for psychiatric purposes. Conclusion: Now that you know the truth about how corrupt the pharmaceutical companies are, the lies you’ve been told about Marijuana and how it can be used medically. Next time you have an ache or pain consider smoking a joint before heading out to see the doc. References DEAsucks.com. (n.d.). DEAsucks.com Medical Marijuana Myths vs Facts. DEAsucks.com The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) sucks!. Retrieved March 7, 2012, from http://deasucks.com/essays/marimyths.htm Mercola. (2010, November 18). The Top 6 Drug Companies Thugs of the Medical World. Natural Health Articles Latest and Current Health News and Information by Dr. Mercola. Retrieved March 5, 2012, from http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2010/11/18/drug-companies-are-ranked-in-the-top-100-corporate-criminals-of-the-1990s.aspx Goldacre, B. (2007, August 4). Evil ways of the drug companies | Science | The Guardian . Latest US news, world news, sport and comment from the Guardian | guardiannews.com | The Guardian . Retrieved March 5, 2012, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/aug/04/sciencenews Morrow, A. (2009, April 6). Marinol vs Marijuana Marijuana and Marinol. About Palliative Care Hospice and Palliative Care. Retrieved March 7, 2012, from http://dying.about.com/od/symptommanagement/f/marinol_vs_MJ.htm Harvey, B. (Director). (2007). The Union The Business Behind Getting High [Documentary]. Canada: Eagle Entertainment. VanMusic. (2010, October 21). Pot Activist Dies After A Brave Battle With Cancer. VanMusic. Retrieved March 7, 2012, from http://www.vanmusic.ca/news/michelle-rainey-dies-of-cancer Wikipedia. (n.d.). Medical cannabis Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved March 7, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_cannabis Wikipedia. (n.d.). Cannabinoid receptor Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved March 7, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabinoid_receptor

History of Egypt Essay -- Historical Egypt Africa Cairo Essays Papers

History of Egypt The rich history of Egypt is tied very closely with the Nile River’s fertile banks and existence as a source of water. Flowing south to north, this massive river has had a tremendous impact on agriculture, transportation, religion, migration of populations, and culture as a whole. The narrow Nile Valley as well as the surrounding deserts provided defense and isolation from the arising cultures of the time. Over many centuries, the rainfall has affected the levels of flooding on the Nile and therefore the way in which the Egyptians had to live. This region is rich with cultural and historical records of the ongoing relationship of culture and society with the environment and the Nile. Cairo is the capital of Egypt and is the biggest city not only in Egypt but the Middle East as well. With a current population of over 15 million inhabitants, the city has evolved for over four thousand years with a variety of social and cultural influences. Northern Africa has been occupied by Ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks and monuments that still stand today are evidence of these influences. Cairo has been known by many names, including Memphis, Heliopolis, Babylon, and, Al-Qahira. The city was a center of religious development for Christianity, Judaism, and Islam throughout its thirty or more dynasties. Over 8,000 years ago, Northern Africa was rich with diverse wildlife including elephants, buffalo, hippopotami, and giraffe (Lamb). However by 5,000 BC, some of these species began to die out or migrate from this region, perhaps due to the increased migration of humans and settling near the Nile. The Nile was the best and only source of fresh water in the area and its annual flooding and receding le... ...In 1882, the British seized control of Egypt until it could repay its debts. Egypt gained its independence in 1952 and has continued to grow, with Cairo being the centerpiece of ongoing development (www.lonelyplanet.com). Throughout the 1960’s and 1970’s, the West Bank of the Nile River was concreted over to make room for urban sprawl. The relationship of the city with the Nile was becoming less cooperative and increasingly damaging to its natural state. Cairo expanded north into Nasr City in what has become an eyesore to the landscape. Cairo has even expanded up and over the Muquattam Hills, which once stood as a barrier to previous eastern growth. The rapid expansion of Cairo seems as if it will pose a serious problem to the Nile and its resources as transportation, industry, and residential construction litter the banks of the once coveted and worshipped Nile.

Foucault Power

The Subject and Power Author(s): Michel Foucault Source: Critical Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 4 (Summer, 1982), pp. 777-795 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/1343197 . Accessed: 26/09/2011 07:49 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive.We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Critical Inquiry. http://www. jstor. org The Subject and Power Michel Foucault Why Study Power? The Question of the Subject The ideas which I wo uld like to discuss here represent neither a theory nor a methodology. I would like to say, first of all, what has been the goal of my work during the last twenty years.It has not been to analyze the phenomena of power, nor to elaborate the foundations of such an analysis. My objective, instead, has been to create a history of the different modes by which, in our culture, human beings are made subjects. My work has dealt with three modes of objectification which transform human beings into subjects. The first is the modes of inquiry which try to give themselves the status of sciences; for example, the objectivizing of the speaking subject in grammaire generale, philology, and linguistics.Or again, in this first mode, the objectivizing of the productive subject, the subject who labors, in the analysis of wealth and of economics. Or, a third example, the objectivizing of the sheer fact of being alive in natural history or biology. In the second part of my work, I have studied the obje ctivizing of the subject in what I shall call â€Å"dividing practices. † The subject is either This essay was written by Michel Foucault as an afterword to Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralismand Hermeneuticsby Hubert L.Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow and reprinted by arrangement with the University of Chicago Press. â€Å"Why Study Power? The Question of the Subject† was written in English by Foucault; â€Å"How Is Power Exercised? † was translated from the French by Leslie Sawyer. Critical Inqury 8 (Summer 1982) , 1982 by The Uni ersity of Chicago. 0093-1896/82/0804-0006$01. 00. All rights reserved. 777 778 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power divided inside himself or divided from others. This process objectivizes him. Examples are the mad and the sane, the sick and the healthy, the criminals and the â€Å"good boys. Finally, I have sought to study-it is my current work-the way a human being turns himself into a subject. For example, I have chosen the domain of s exuality-how men have learned to recognize themselves as subjects of â€Å"sexuality. † Thus, it is not power but the subject which is the general theme of my research. It is true that I became quite involved with the question of power. It soon appeared to me that, while the human subject is placed in relations of production and of signification, he is equally placed in power relations which are very complex.Now, it seemed to me that economic history and theory provided a good instrument for relations of production and that linguistics and semiotics offered instruments for studying relations of signification; but for power relations we had no tools of study. We had recourse only to ways of thinking about power based on legal models, that is: What legitimates power? Or, we had recourse to ways of thinking about power based on institutional models, that is: What is the state? It was therefore necessary to expand the dimensions of a definition of power if one wanted to use this definition in studying the objectivizing of the subject.Do we need a theory of power? Since a theory assumes a prior objectification, it cannot be asserted as a basis for analytical work. But this analytical work cannot proceed without an ongoing conceptualization. And this conceptualization implies critical thought-a constant checking. The first thing to check is what I shall call the â€Å"conceptual needs. † I mean that the conceptualization should not be founded on a theory of the object-the conceptualized object is not the single criterion of a good conceptualization. We have to know the historical conditions which motivate our conceptualization.We need a historical awareness of our present circumstance. The second thing to check is the type of reality with which we are dealing. A writer in a well-known French newspaper once expressed his surprise: â€Å"Why is the notion of power raised by so many people today? Is Michel Foucault has been teaching at the College de Fra nce since 1970. His works include Madness and Civilization (1961), The Birth of the Clinic (1966), Discipline and Punish (1975), and History of Sexuality (1976), the first volume of a projected five-volume study. Critical Inquiry Summer1982 779 it such an important subject?Is it so independent that it can be discussed without taking into account other problems? † This writer's surprise amazes me. I feel skeptical about the assumption that this question has been raised for the first time in the twentieth century. Anyway, for us it is not only a theoretical question but a part of our experience. I'd like to mention only two â€Å"pathological forms†-those two â€Å"diseases of power†-fascism and Stalinism. One of the numerous reasons why they are, for us, so puzzling is that in spite of their historical uniqueness they are not quite original. They used and extended mechanisms already present in most other societies.More than that: in spite of their own internal mad ness, they used to a large extent the ideas and the devices of our political rationality. What we need is a new economy of power relations-the word â€Å"economy† being used in its theoretical and practical sense. To put it in other words: since Kant, the role of philosophy is to prevent reason from going beyond the limits of what is given in experience; but from the same moment-that is, since the development of the modern state and the political management of society-the role of philosophy is also to keep watch over the excessive powers of political rationality, which is a rather high expectation.Everybody is aware of such banal facts. But the fact that they're banal does not mean they don't exist. What we have to do with banal facts is to discover-or try to discover-which specific and perhaps original problem is connected with them. The relationship between rationalization and excesses of political power is evident. And we should not need to wait for bureaucracy or concentr ation camps to recognize the existence of such relations. But the problem is: What to do with such an evident fact? Shall we try reason? To my mind, nothing would be more sterile.First, because the field has nothing to do with guilt or innocence. Second, because it is senseless to refer to reason as the contrary entity to nonreason. Last, because such a trial would trap us into playing the arbitrary and boring part of either the rationalist or the irrationalist. Shall we investigate this kind of rationalism which seems to be specific to our modern culture and which originates in Aufkldrung? I think that was the approach of some of the members of the Frankfurt School. My purpose, however, is not to start a discussion of their works, although they are most important and valuable.Rather, I would suggest another way of investigating the links between rationalization and power. It may be wise not to take as a whole the rationalization of society or of culture but to analyze such a proces s in several fields, each with reference to a fundamental experience: madness, illness, death, crime, sexuality, and so forth. I think that the word â€Å"rationalization† is dangerous. What we have 780 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power to do is analyze specific rationalities rather than always invoke the progress of rationalization in general.Even if the Aufkliirung has been a very important phase in our history and in the development of political technology, I think we have to refer to much more remote processes if we want to understand how we have been trapped in our own history. I would like to suggest another way to go further toward a new economy of power relations, a way which is more empirical, more directly related to our present situation, and which implies more relations between theory and practice. It consists of taking the forms of resistance against different forms of power as a starting point.To use another metaphor, it consists of using this resistance as a chemical catalyst so as to bring to light power relations, locate their position, and find out their point of application and the methods used. Rather than analyzing power from the point of view of its internal rationality, it consists of analyzing power relations through the antagonism of strategies. For example, to find out what our society means by sanity, perhaps we should investigate what is happening in the field of insanity. And what we mean by legality in the field of illegality.And, in order to understand what power relations are about, perhaps we should investigate the forms of resistance and attempts made to dissociate these relations. As a starting point, let us take a series of oppositions which have developed over the last few years: opposition to the power of men over women, of parents over children, of psychiatry over the mentally ill, of medicine over the population, of administration over the ways people live. It is not enough to say that these are anti-authority struggles; we must try to define more precisely what they have in common. . They are â€Å"transversal† struggles; that is, they are not limited to one country. Of course, they develop more easily and to a greater extent in certain countries, but they are not confined to a particular political or economic form of government. 2. The aim of these struggles is the power effects as such. For example, the medical profession is not criticized primarily because it is a profit-making concern but because it exercises an uncontrolled power over people's bodies, their health, and their life and death. 3. These are â€Å"immediate† struggles for two reasons.In such struggles people criticize instances of power which are the closest to them, those which exercise their action on individuals. They do not look for the â€Å"chief enemy† but for the immediate enemy. Nor do they expect to find a solution to their problem at a future date (that is, liberations, revolutions, end of class struggle). In comparison with a theoretical scale of explanations or a revolutionary order which polarizes the historian, they are anarchistic struggles. Critical Inquiry Summer1982 781 But these are not their most original points. The following seem to me to be more specific. . They are struggles which question the status of the individual: on the one hand, they assert the right to be different, and they underline everything which makes individuals truly individual. On the other hand, they attack everything which separates the individual, breaks his links with others, splits up community life, forces the individual back on himself, and ties him to his own identity in a constraining way. These struggles are not exactly for or against the â€Å"individual† but rather they are struggles against the â€Å"government of individualization. 5. They are an opposition to the effects of power which are linked with knowledge, competence, and qualification: struggles against the privileges of knowledge. But they are also an opposition against secrecy, deformation, and mystifying representations imposed on people. There is nothing â€Å"scientistic† in this (that is, a dogmatic belief in the value of scientific knowledge), but neither is it a skeptical or relativistic refusal of all verified truth. What is questioned is the way in which knowledge circulates and functions, its relations to power.In short, the regime du savoir. 6. Finally, all these present struggles revolve around the question: Who are we? They are a refusal of these abstractions, of economic and ideological state violence, which ignore who we are individually, and also a refusal of a scientific or administrative inquisition which determines who one is. To sum up, the main objective of these struggles is to attack not so much â€Å"such or such† an institution of power, or group, or elite, or class but rather a technique, a form of power.This form of power applies itself to imm ediate everyday life which categorizes the individual, marks him by his own individuality, attaches him to his own identity, imposes a law of truth on him which he must recognize and which others have to recognize in him. It is a form of power which makes individuals subjects. There are two meanings of the word â€Å"subject†: subject to someone else by control and dependence; and tied to his own identity by a conscience or self-knowledge. Both meanings suggest a form of power which subjugates and makes subject to.Generally, it can be said that there are three types of struggles: either against forms of domination (ethnic, social, and religious); against forms of exploitation which separate individuals from what they produce; or against that which ties the individual to himself and submits him to others in this way (struggles against subjection, against forms of subjectivity and submission). I think that in history you can find a lot of examples of these three kinds of social struggles, either isolated from each other or mixed together. But even when they are mixed, one of them, most of the time, prevails.For instance, in the feudal societies, the struggles against the 782 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power forms of ethnic or social domination were prevalent, even though economic exploitation could have been very important among the revolt's causes. In the nineteenth century, the struggle against exploitation came into the foreground. And nowadays, the struggle against the forms of subjectionagainst the submission of subjectivity-is becoming more and more important, even though the struggles against forms of domination and exploitation have not disappeared. Quite the contrary. I suspect that it is ot the first time that our society has been confronted with this kind of struggle. All those movements which took place in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and which had the Reformation as their main expression and result should be analyzed as a great c risis of the Western experience of subjectivity and a revolt against the kind of religious and moral power which gave form, during the Middle Ages, to this subjectivity. The need to take a direct part in spiritual life, in the work of salvation, in the truth which lies in the Book-all that was a struggle for a new subjectivity.I know what objections can be made. We can say that all types of subjection are derived phenomena, that they are merely the consequences of other economic and social processes: forces of production, class struggle, and ideological structures which determine the form of subjectivity. It is certain that the mechanisms of subjection cannot be studied outside their relation to the mechanisms of exploitation and domination. But they do not merely constitute the â€Å"terminal† of more fundamental mechanisms. They entertain complex and circular relations with other forms.The reason this kind of struggle tends to prevail in our society is due to the fact that, since the sixteenth century, a new political form of power has been continuously developing. This new political structure, as everybody knows, is the state. But most of the time, the state is envisioned as a kind of political power which ignores individuals, looking only at the interests of the totality or, I should say, of a class or a group among the citizens. That's quite true. But I'd like to underline the fact that the state's power (and that's one of the reasons for its strength) is both an individualizing and a totalizing form of power.Never, I think, in the history of human societies–even in the old Chinese society-has there been such a tricky combination in the same political structures of individualization techniques and of totalization procedures. This is due to the fact that the modern Western state has integrated in a new political shape an old power technique which originated in Christian institutions. We can call this power technique the pastoral power. Critic al Inquiry Summer1982 783 First of all, a few words about this pastoral power.It has often been said that Christianity brought into being a code of ethics fundamentally different from that of the ancient world. Less emphasis is usually placed on the fact that it proposed and spread new power relations throughout the ancient world. Christianity is the only religion which has organized itself as a church. And as such, it postulates in principle that certain individuals can, by their religious quality, serve others not as princes, magistrates, prophets, fortune-tellers, benefactors, educationalists, and so on but as pastors.However, this word designates a very special form of power. 1. It is a form of power whose ultimate aim is to assure individual salvation in the next world. 2. Pastoral power is not merely a form of power which commands; it must also be prepared to sacrifice itself for the life and salvation of the flock. Therefore, it is different from royal power, which demands a sacrifice from its subjects to save the throne. 3. It is a form of power which does not look after just the whole community but each individual in particular, during his entire life. 4.Finally, this form of power cannot be exercised without knowing the inside of people's minds, without exploring their souls, without making them reveal their innermost secrets. It implies a knowledge of the conscience and an ability to direct it. This form of power is salvation oriented (as opposed to political power). It is oblative (as opposed to the principle of sovereignty); it is individualizing (as opposed to legal power); it is coextensive and continuous with life; it is linked with a production of truth-the truth of the individual himself.But all this is part of history, you will say; the pastorate has, if not disappeared, at least lost the main part of its efficiency. This is true, but I think we should distinguish between two aspects of pastoral power-between the ecclesiastical institutional ization, which has ceased or at least lost its vitality since the eighteenth century, and its function, which has spread and multiplied outside the ecclesiastical institution.An important phenomenon took place around the eighteenth century-it was a new distribution, a new organization of this kind of individualizing power. I don't think that we should consider the â€Å"modern state† as an entity which was developed above individuals, ignoring what they are and even their very existence, but, on the contrary, as a very sophisticated structure, in which individuals can be integrated, under one condition: that this individuality would be shaped in a new form and submitted to a set of very specific patterns.In a way, we can see the state as a modern matrix of individualization or a new form of pastoral power. 784 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power A few more words about this new pastoral power. 1. We may observe a change in its objective. It was no longer a question of leading people to their salvation in the next world but rather ensuring it in this world. And in this context, the word â€Å"salvation† takes on different meanings: health, well-being (that is, sufficient wealth, standard of living), security, protection against accidents.A series of â€Å"worldly† aims took the place of the religious aims of the traditional pastorate, all the more easily because the latter, for various reasons, had followed in an accessory way a certain number of these aims; we only have to think of the role of medicine and its welfare function assured for a long time by the Catholic and Protestant churches. 2. Concurrently the officials of pastoral power increased. Sometimes this form of power was exerted by state apparatus or, in any case, by a public institution such as the police. We should not forget that in the eighteenth century the police force was not invented only for maintaining law and order, nor for assisting governments in their struggle again st their enemies, but for assuring urban supplies, hygiene, health, and standards considered necessary for handicrafts and commerce. ) Sometimes the power was exercised by private ventures, welfare societies, benefactors, and generally by philanthropists. But ancient institutions, for example the family, were also mobilized at this time to take on pastoral functions. It was also exercised by complex structures such as medicine, hich included private initiatives with the sale of services on market economy principles, but which also included public institutions such as hospitals. 3. Finally, the multiplication of the aims and agents of pastoral power focused the development of knowledge of man around two roles: one, globalizing and quantitative, concerning the population; the other, analytical, concerning the individual. And this implies that power of a pastoral type, which over centuries-for more than a millennium-had been linked to a defined religious institution, suddenly spread ou t into the whole social body; it found support in a multitude of institutions.And, instead of a pastoral power and a political power, more or less linked to each other, more or less rival, there was an individualizing â€Å"tactic† which characterized a series of powers: those of the family, medicine, psychiatry, education, and employers. At the end of' the eighteenth century, Kant wrote, in a German newspaper-the Berliner Monatschrift-a short text. The title was â€Å"Was heisst Aufklairung? † It was for a long time, and it is still, considered a work of relatively small importance.But I can't help finding it very interesting and puzzling because it was the first time a philosopher proposed as a philosophical task to investigate not only the metaphysical system or the foundations of sci- Critical Inquiry Summer1982 785 entific knowledge but a historical event-a recent, even a contemporary event. When in 1784 Kant asked, Was heisst Aufklirung? , he meant, What's going on just now? What's happening to us? What is this world, this period, this precise moment in which we are living? Or in other words: What are we? as Aufklidrer,as part of the Enlightenment? Compare this with the Cartesian question: Who am I?I, as a unique but universal and unhistorical subject? I, for Descartes, is everyone, anywhere at any moment? But Kant asks something else: What are we? in a very precise moment of history. Kant's question appears as an analysis of both us and our present. I think that this aspect of philosophy took on more and more importance. Hegel, Nietzsche †¦ The other aspect of â€Å"universal philosophy† didn't disappear. But the task of philosophy as a critical analysis of our world is something which is more and more important. Maybe the most certain of all philosophical problems is the problem of the present time and of what we are in this very moment.Maybe the target nowadays is not to discover what we are but to refuse what we are. We have to imagine and to build up what we could be to get rid of this kind of political â€Å"double bind,† which is the simultaneous individualization and totalization of modern power structures. The conclusion would be that the political, ethical, social, philosophical problem of our days is not to try to liberate the individual from the state and from the state's institutions but to liberate us both from the state and from the type of individualization which is linked to the state.We have to promote new forms of subjectivity through the refusal of this kind of individuality which has been imposed on us for several centuries. How Is Power Exercised? For some people, asking questions about the â€Å"how† of power would limit them to describing its effects without ever relating those effects either to causes or to a basic nature. It would make this power a mysterious substance which they might hesitate to interrogate in itself, no doubt because they would prefer not to call it into question.By proceeding this way, which is never explicitly justified, they seem to suspect the presence of a kind of fatalism. But does not their very distrust indicate a presupposition that power is something which exists with three distinct qualities: its origin, its basic nature, and its manifestations? If, for the time being, I grant a certain privileged position to the question of â€Å"how,† it is not because I would wish to eliminate the ques- 786 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power tions of â€Å"what† and â€Å"why. Rather, it is that I wish to present these questions in a different way: better still, to know if it is legitimate to imagine a power which unites in itself a what, a why, and a how. To put it bluntly, I would say that to begin the analysis with a â€Å"how† is to suggest that power as such does not exist. At the very least it is to ask oneself what contents one has in mind when using this all-embracing and reifying term; it is to suspect that an extremely complex configuration of realities is allowed to escape when one treads endlessly in the double question: What is power? and Where does power come from? The little question, What happens? although flat and empirical, once scrutinized is seen to avoid accusing a metaphysics or an ontology of power of being fraudulent; rather, it attempts a critical investigation into the thematics of power. â€Å"How,† not in the sense oJ â€Å"How does it manifest itself? † but â€Å"By what means is it exercised? † and â€Å"Whathappens when individuals exert(as theysay) power over others? † As far as this power is concerned, it is first necessary to distinguish that which is exerted over things and gives the ability to modify, use, consume, or destroy them-a power which stems from aptitudes directly inherent in the body or relayed by external instruments.Let us say that here it is a question of â€Å"capacity. † On the other hand, what c haracterizes the power we are analyzing is that it brings into play relations between individuals (or between groups). For let us not deceive ourselves; if we speak of the structures or the mechanisms of power, it is only insofar as we suppose that certain persons exercise power over others. The term â€Å"power† designates relationships between partners (and by that I am not thinking of a zero-sum game but simply, and for the moment staying in the most general terms, of an ensemble of actions which induce others and follow from one another).It is necessary also to distinguish power relations from relationships of communication which transmit information by means of a language, a system of signs, or any other symbolic medium. No doubt communicating is always a certain way of acting upon another person or persons. But the production and circulation of elements of meaning can have as their objective or as their consequence certain results in the realm of power; the latter are n ot simply an aspect of the former. Whether or not they pass through systems of communication, power relations have a specific nature.Power relations, relationships of communication, and objective capacities should not therefore be confused. This is not to say that there is a question of three separate domains. Nor that there is on one hand the field of things, of perfected technique, work, and the transformation of the real; on the other that of signs, communication, reciprocity, and the production of meaning; and finally, that of the domination of the Critical Inquiry Summer1982 787 means of constraint, of inequality, and the action of men upon other men. It is a question of three types of relationships which in fact always overlap one another, support one another reciprocally, and use each other mutually as means to an end. The application of objective capacities in their most elementary forms implies relationships of communication (whether in the form of previously acquired infor mation or of shared work); it is tied also to power relations (whether they consist of obligatory tasks, of gestures imposed by tradition or apprenticeship, of subdivisions and the more or less obligatory distribution of labor).Relationships of communication imply finalized activities (even if only the correct putting into operation of elements of meaning) and, by virtue of modifying the field of information between partners, produce effects of power. They can scarcely be dissociated from activities brought to their final term, be they those which permit the exercise of this power (such as training techniques, processes of domination, the means by which obedience is obtained) or those, which in order to develop their potential, call upon relations of power (the division of labor and the hierarchy of tasks).Of course, the coordination between these three types of relationships is neither uniform nor constant. In a given society there is no general type of equilibrium between finalize d activities, systems of communication, and power relations. Rather, there are diverse forms, diverse places, diverse circumstances or occasions in which these interrelationships establish themselves according to a specific model.But there are also â€Å"blocks† in which the adjustment of abilities, the resources of communication, and power relations constitute regulated and concerted systems. Take, for example, an educational institution: the disposal of its space, the meticulous regulations which govern its internal life, the different activities which are organized there, the diverse persons who live there or meet one another, each with his own function, his well-defined character-all these things constitute a block of capacitycommunication-power.The activity which ensures apprenticeship and the acquisition of aptitudes or types of behavior is developed there by means of a whole ensemble of regulated communications (lessons, questions and answers, orders, exhortations, cod ed signs of obedience, differentiation marks of the â€Å"value† of each person and of the levels of knowledge) and by the means of a whole series of power processes (enclosure, surveillance, reward and punishment, the pyramidal hierarchy).These blocks, in which the putting into operation of technical capacities, the game of communications, and the relationships of power are adjusted to one another according to considered formulae, con1. When Jiirgen Habermas distinguishes between domination, communication, and finalized activity, I do not think that he sees in them three separate domains but rather three â€Å"transcendentals. † 788 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power titute what one might call, enlarging a little the sense of the word, â€Å"disciplines. † The empirical analysis of certain disciplines as they have been historically constituted presents for this very reason a certain interest. This is so because the disciplines show, first, according to artifi cially clear and decanted systems, the manner in which systems of objective finality and systems of communication and power can be welded together.They also display different models of articulation, sometimes giving preeminence to power relations and obedience (as in those disciplines of a monastic or penitential type), sometimes to finalize activities (as in the disciplines of workshops or hospitals), sometimes to relationships of communication (as in the disciplines of apprenticeship), sometimes also to a saturation of the three types of relationship (as perhaps in military discipline, where a plethora of signs indicates, to the point of redundancy, tightly knit power relations calculated with care to produce a certain number of technical effects).What is to be understood by the disciplining of societies in Europe since the eighteenth century is not, of course, that the individuals who are part of them become more and more obedient, nor that they set about assembling in barracks, schools, or prisons; rather, that an increasingly better invigilated process of adjustment has been sought after-more and more rational and economic-between productive activities, resources of communication, and the play of power relations.To approach the theme of power by an analysis of â€Å"how† is therefore to introduce several critical shifts in relation to the supposition of a fundamental power. It is to give oneself as the object of analysis power relations and not power itself-power relations which are distinct from objective abilities as well as from relations of communication. This is as much as saying that power relations can be grasped in the diversity of their logical sequence, their abilities, and their interrelationships.What constitutesthe specificnature of power? The exercise of power is not simply a relationship between partners, individual or collective; it is a way in which certain actions modify'others. Which is to say, of course, that something called Po wer, with or without a capital letter, which is assumed to exist universally in a concentrated or diffused form, does not exist. Power exists only when it is put into action, even if, of course, it is integrated into a disparate field of possibilities brought to bear upon permanent structures.This also means that power is not a function of consent. In itself it is not a renunciation of freedom, a transference of rights, the power of each and all delegated to a few (which does not prevent the possibility that consent may be a condition for the existence or the maintenance of power); the relationship of power can be the result of a prior or permanent consent, but it is not by nature the manifestation of a consensus. Critical Inquiry Summer 1982 89 Is this to say that one must seek the character proper to power relations in the violence which must have been its primitive form, its permanent secret, and its last resource, that which in the final analysis appears as its real nature when it is forced to throw aside its mask and to show itself as it really is? In effect, what defines a relationship of power is that it is a mode of action which does not act directly and immediately on others.Instead, it acts upon their actions: an action upon an action, on existing actions or on those which may arise in the present or the future. A relationship of violence acts upon a body or upon things; it forces, it bends, it breaks on the wheel, it destroys, or it closes the door on all possibilities. Its opposite pole can only be passivity, and if it comes up against any resistance, it has no other option but to try to minimize it.On the other hand, a power relationship can only be articulated on the basis of two elements which are each indispensable if it is really to be a power relationship: that â€Å"the other† (the one over whom power is exercised) be thoroughly recognized and maintained to the very end as a person who acts; and that, faced with a relationship of powe r, a whole field of responses, reactions, results, and possible inventions may open up.Obviously the bringing into play of power relations does not exclude the use of violence any more than it does the obtaining of consent; no doubt the exercise of power can never do without one or the other, often both at the same time. But even though consensus and violence are the instruments or the results, they do not constitute the principle or the basic nature of power. The exercise of power can produce as much acceptance as may be wished for: it can pile up the dead and shelter itself behind whatever threats it can imagine.In itself the exercise of power is not violence; nor is it a consent which, implicitly, is renewable. It is a total structure of actions brought to bear upon possible actions; it incites, it induces, it seduces, it makes easier or more difficult; in the extreme it constrains or forbids absolutely; it is nevertheless always a way of acting upon an acting subject or acting s ubjects by virtue of their acting or being capable of action. A set of actions upon other actions.Perhaps the equivocal nature of the term â€Å"conduct† is one of the best aids for coming to terms with the specificity of power relations. For to â€Å"conduct† is at the same time to â€Å"lead† others (according to mechanisms of coercion which are, to varying degrees, strict) and a way of behaving within a more or less open field of possibilities. * The exercise of power consists in guiding the possibility of conduct and putting in order the possible outcome.Basically power is less a confrontation between two adversaries or the linking of one to the other than a question of government. This word must be allowed the very broad meaning *Foucault is playing on the double meaning in French of the verb conduire, â€Å"to lead† or â€Å"to drive,† and se conduire, â€Å"to behave† or â€Å"to conduct oneself†; whence la conduite, â€Å"con duct† or â€Å"behavior. â€Å"-Translator's note. 790 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power which it had in the sixteenth century. Government† did not refer only to political structures or to the management of states; rather, it designated the way in which the conduct of individuals or of groups might be directed: the government of children, of souls, of communities, of families, of the sick. It did not only cover the legitimately constituted forms of political or economic subjection but also modes of action, more or less considered or calculated, which were destined to act upon the possibilities of action of other people. To govern, in this sense, is to structure the possible field of action of others.The relationship proper to power would not, therefore, be sought on the side of violence or of struggle, nor on that of voluntary linking (all of which can, at best, only be the instruments of power), but rather in the area of the singular mode of action, neither warlike nor juridical, which is government. When one defines the exercise of power as a mode of action upon the actions of others, when one characterizes these actions by the government of men by other men-in the broadest sense of the term-one includes an important element: freedom.Power is exercised only over free subjects, and only insofar as they are free. By this we mean individual or collective subjects who are faced with a field of possibilities in which several ways of behaving, several reactions and diverse comportments, may be realized. Where the determining factors saturate the whole, there is no relationship of power; slavery is not a power relationship when man is in chains. (In this case it is a question of a physical relationship of constraint. Consequently, there is no face-to-face confrontation of power and freedom, which are mutually exclusive (freedom disappears everywhere power is exercised), but a much more complicated interplay. In this game freedom may well appear as the condition for the exercise of power (at the same time its precondition, since freedom must exist for power to be exerted, and also its permanent support, since without the possibility of recalcitrance, power would be equivalent to a physical determination). The relationship between power and freedom's refusal to submit cannot, therefore, be separated.The crucial problem of power is not that of voluntary servitude (how could we seek to be slaves? ). At the very heart of the power relationship, and constantly provoking it, are the recalcitrance of the will and the intransigence of freedom. Rather than speaking of an essential freedom, it would be better to speak of an â€Å"agonism†*–of a relationship which is at the same time reciprocal incitation and struggle, less of a face-to-face confrontation which paralyzes both sides than a permanent provocation. *Foucault's neologism is based on the Greek &ycvro-ota meaning â€Å"a combat. The term would hence imply a physi cal contest in which the opponents develop a strategy of reaction and of†¢ mutual taunting, as in a wrestling match. -Translator's note. Critical Inquiry How is one to analyze the power relationship? Summer1982 791 One can analyze such relationships, or rather I should say that it is perfectly legitimate to do so, by focusing on carefully defined institutions. The latter constitute a privileged point of observation, diversified, concentrated, put in order, and carried through to the highest point of their efficacity.It is here that, as a first approximation, one might expect to see the appearance of the form and logic of their elementary mechanisms. However, the analysis of power relations as one finds them in certain circumscribed institutions presents a certain number of problems. First, the fact that an important part of the mechanisms put into operation by an institution are designed to ensure its own preservation brings with it the risk of deciphering functions which are e ssentially reproductive, especially in power relations between institutions.Second, in analyzing power relations from the standpoint of institutions, one lays oneself open to seeking the explanation and the origin of the former in the latter, that is to say, finally, to explain power to power. Finally, insofar as institutions act essentially by bringing into play two elements, explicit or tacit regulations and an apparatus, one risks giving to one or the other an exaggerated privilege in the relations of power and hence to see in the latter only modulations of the law and of coercion.This does not deny the importance of institutions on the establishment of power relations. Instead, I wish to suggest that one must analyze institutions from the standpoint of power relations, rather than vice versa, and that the fundamental point of anchorage of the relationships, even if they are embodied and crystallized in an institution, is to be found outside the institution. Let us come back to t he definition of the exercise of power as a way in which certain actions may structure the field of other possible actions.What, therefore, would be proper to a relationship of power is that it be a mode of action upon actions. That is to say, power relations are rooted deep in the social nexus, not reconstituted â€Å"above† society as a supplementary structure whose radical effacement one could perhaps dream of. In any case, to live in society is to live in such a way that action upon other actions is possible-and in fact ongoing. A society without power relations can only be an abstraction. Which, be it said in passing, makes all the more olitically necessary the analysis of power relations in a given society, their historical formation, the source of their strength or fragility, the conditions which are necessary to transform some or to abolish others. For to say that there cannot be a society without power relations is not to say either that those which are established a re necessary or, in any case, that power constitutes a fatality at the heart of societies, such that it cannot be undermined. Instead, I would say that the analysis, elaboration, and bringing into question of power relations 792 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power nd the â€Å"agonism† between power relations and the intransitivity of freedom is a permanent political task inherent in all social existence. The analysis of power relations demands that a certain number of points be established concretely: 1. The system of differentiationswhich permits one to act upon the actions of others: differentiations determined by the law or by traditions of status and privilege; economic differences in the appropriation of riches and goods, shifts in the processes of production, linguistic or cultural differences, differences in know-how and competence, and so forth.Every relationship of power puts into operation differentiations which are at the same time its conditions and its results. 2. The typesof objectivespursued by those who act upon the actions of others: the maintenance of privileges, the accumulation of profits, the bringing into operation of statutary authority, the exercise of a function or of a trade. 3.The means of bringing power relations into being: according to whether power is exercised by the threat of arms, by the effects of the word, by means of economic disparities, by more or less complex means of control, by systems of surveillance, with or without archives, according to rules which are or are not explicit, fixed or modifiable, with or without the technological means to put all these things into action. 4. Forms of institutionalization: these may mix traditional redispositions, legal structures, phenomena relating to custom or to fashion (such as one sees in the institution of the family); they can also take the form of an apparatus closed in upon itself, with its specific loci, its own regulations, its hierarchical structures which are car efully defined, a relative autonomy in its functioning (such as scholastic or military institutions); they can also form very complex systems endowed with multiple apparatuses, as in the case of the state, whose function is the taking of everything under its wing, the bringing into being of general surveillance, the principle of regulation, and, to a certain extent also, the distribution of all power relations in a given social ensemble. 5. The degrees of rationalization: the bringing into play of power relations as action in a field of possibilities may be more or less elaborate in relation to the effectiveness of the instruments and the certainty of the results (greater or lesser technological refinements employed in the exercise of power) or again in proportion to the possible cost (be it the economic cost of the means brought into operation or the cost in terms of reaction constituted by the resistance which is encountered).The exercise of power is not a naked fact, an instituti onal right, nor is it a structure which holds out or is smashed: it is elaborated, transformed, organized; it endows itself with processes which are more or less adjusted to the situation. One sees why the analysis of power relations within a society cannot be reduced to the study of a series of institutions, not even to the study of Critical Inquiry Summer1982 793 all those institutions which would merit the name â€Å"political. † Power relations are rooted in the system of social networks. This is not to say, however, that there is a primary and fundamental principle of power which dominates society down to the smallest detail; but, taking as point of departure the possibility of action upon the action of others (which is coextensive with every social relationship), multiple forms of individual isparity, of objectives, of the given application of power over ourselves or others, of, in varying degrees, partial or universal institutionalization, of more or less deliberate or ganization, one can define different forms of power. The forms and the specific situations of the government of men by one another in a given society are multiple; they are superimposed, they cross, impose their own limits, sometimes cancel one another out, sometimes reinforce one another. It is certain that in contemporary societies the state is not simply one of the forms or specific situations of the exercise of power–even if it is the most important-but that in a certain way all other forms of power relation must refer to it.But this is not because they are derived from it; it is rather because power relations have come more and more under state control (although this state control has not taken the same form in pedagogical, judicial, economic, or family systems). In referring here to the restricted sense of the word â€Å"government,† one could say that power relations have been progressively governmentalized, that is to say, elaborated, rationalized, and centrali zed in the form of, or under the auspices of, state institutions. Relations of power and relations of strategy. The word â€Å"strategy† is currently employed in three ways. First, to designate the means employed to attain a certain end; it is a question of rationality functioning to arrive at an objective.Second, to designate the manner in which a partner in a certain game acts with regard to what he thinks should be the action of the others and what he considers the others think to be his own; it is the way in which one seeks to have the advantage over others. Third, to designate the procedures used in a situation of confrontation to deprive the opponent of his means of combat and to reduce him to giving up the struggle; it is a question, therefore, of the means destined to obtain victory. These three meanings come together in situations of confrontation-war or games-where the objective is to act upon an adversary in such a manner as to render the struggle impossible for hi m. So strategy is defined by the choice of winning solutions.But it must be borne in mind that this is a very special type of situation and that there are others in which the distinctions between the different senses of the word â€Å"strategy† must be maintained. Referring to the first sense I have indicated, one may call power strategy the totality of the means put into operation to implement power effectively or to maintain it. One may also speak of a strategy proper to 794 Michel Foucault The Subjectand Power power relations insofar as they constitute modes of action upon possible action, the action of others. One can therefore interpret the mechanisms brought into play in power relations in terms of strategies. But most important is obviously the relationship between power relations and confrontation strategies.For, if it is true that at the heart of power relations and as a permanent condition of their existence there is an insubordination and a certain essential obstin acy on the part of the principles of freedom, then there is no relationship of power without the means of escape or possible flight. Every power relationship implies, at least in potentia, a strategy of struggle, in which the two forces are not superimposed, do not lose their specific nature, or do not finally become confused. Each constitutes for the other a kind of permanent limit, a point of possible reversal. A relationship of confrontation reaches its term, its final moment (and the victory of one of the two adversaries), when stable mechanisms replace the free play of antagonistic reactions.Through such mechanisms one can direct, in a fairly constant manner and with reasonable certainty, the conduct of others. For a relationship of confrontation, from the moment it is not a struggle to the death, the fixing of a power relationship becomes a target-at one and the same time its fulfillment and its suspension. And in return, the strategy of struggle also constitutes a frontier fo r the relationship of power, the line at which, instead of manipulating and inducing actions in a calculated manner, one must be content with reacting to them after the event. It would not be possible for power relations to exist without points of insubordination which, by definition, are means of escape.Accordingly, every intensification, every extension of power relations to make the insubordinate submit can only result in the limits of power. The latter reaches its final term either in a type of action which reduces the other to total impotence (in which case victory over the adversary replaces the exercise of power) or by a confrontation with those whom one governs and their transformation into adversaries. Which is to say that every strategy of confrontation dreams of becoming a relationship of power, and every relationship of power leans toward the idea that, if it follows its own line of development and comes up against direct confrontation, it may become the winning strategy .In effect, between a relationship of power and a strategy of struggle there is a reciprocal appeal, a perpetual linking and a perpetual reversal. At every moment the relationship of power may become a confrontation between two adversaries. Equally, the relationship between adversaries in society may, at every moment, give place to the putting into operation of mechanisms of power. The consequence of this instability is the ability to decipher the same events and the same transformations either from inside the history of struggle or from the standpoint of the power relationships. The interpretations which result will not consist of the same elements of meaning or the same links or the same types of intelligibility, Critical Inquiry Summer 1982 795 lthough they refer to the same historical fabric, and each of the two analyses must have reference to the other. In fact, it is precisely the disparities between the two readings which make visible those fundamental phenomena of â€Å"dom ination† which are present in a large number of human societies.Domination is in fact a general structure of power whose ramifications and consequences can sometimes be found descending to the most recalcitrant fibers of society. But at the same time it is a strategic situation more or less taken for granted and consolidated by means of a long-term confrontation between adversaries. It can certainly happen that the fact of domination may only be the transcription of a mechanism of power esulting from confrontation and its consequences (a political structure stemming from invasion); it may also be that a relationship of struggle between two adversaries is the result of power relations with the conflicts and cleavages which ensue. But what makes the domination of a group, a caste, or a class, together with the resistance and revolts which that domination comes up against, a central phenomenon in the history of societies is that they manifest in a massive and universalizing form, at the level of the whole social body, the locking together of power relations with relations of strategy and the results proceeding from their interaction.